Author: toahostinger

The Right to Privacy was declared a fundamental right under Article 21 by the Supreme Court in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017), marking a turning point in protecting individual dignity, autonomy, and freedom in the digital age. 📚 Introduction For decades, India did not explicitly recognize a right to privacy. That changed dramatically in 2017, when a nine-judge bench of the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that privacy is a fundamental right. In a world of surveillance, data leaks, facial recognition, and social media tracking, this judgment came as a constitutional shield for every Indian citizen. 🧾 Constitutional Basis The Right to Privacy is not specifically mentioned in the Constitution. But the Supreme Court held that it is implicit in: Article 21 – Right to life and personal liberty Article 19 – Freedom of expression and movement Article 14 – Right to equality and dignity Privacy is essential for exercising these rights meaningfully. Whether it’s about how we live, who we love, what we browse, or how we vote—privacy protects it all. ⚖️ Landmark Case: Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017) Retired judge K.S. Puttaswamy challenged the mandatory Aadhaar linkage, arguing it violated privacy. The government claimed privacy wasn’t a fundamental right, relying on outdated cases like M.P. Sharma (1954) and Kharak Singh (1962). ✅ The Court overruled both and declared: “Privacy is intrinsic to life and liberty under Article 21.” The judgment emphasized: Dignity Autonomy Freedom of thought Bodily integrity Informational privacy 📘 Related and Follow-Up Cases Aadhaar Case (2018) SC upheld Aadhaar for welfare but struck down mandatory linkage with bank accounts, SIM cards, and private services. Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018) Decriminalized homosexuality, citing privacy and dignity. Joseph Shine v. Union of India (2018) Struck down adultery law as it intruded on personal autonomy. 📲 What Does the Right to Privacy Include? Personal data protection Digital privacy (internet activity, messages, emails) Home and family life Medical and reproductive privacy Sexual orientation and gender identity Freedom from surveillance and profiling 🔍 Real-World Implications Data Protection Laws Led to the drafting of India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act (2023). Consent-based data use Companies must inform users how their data is collected and used. Social media and tech regulation Platforms are under scrutiny for privacy breaches and algorithmic control. Surveillance concerns Tools like Pegasus spyware raised questions on state overreach. ⚖️ Privacy Is Not Absolute The Court held that privacy is not an unlimited right. The government can restrict it if: ✅ There is a legitimate state interest✅ The action is proportionate and necessary✅ The least restrictive alternative is used✅ There is a legal framework This keeps a balance between individual rights and national interest. 🧠 Why It Matters Protects citizens from state surveillance and corporate exploitation Upholds human dignity and personal space Essential in an era of AI, biometric tracking, and digital governance 🧩 Conclusion The recognition of the Right to Privacy as a fundamental right was a historic moment that reshaped Indian democracy for the digital age. It ensures that citizens remain in control of their lives, bodies, and data—and that no government or corporation can trespass without reason. In today’s world, privacy is not a luxury—it is a constitutional necessity.

While Article 14 guarantees equality, the Indian Constitution also allows affirmative action (reservations) under Articles 15(4) and 16(4) to uplift socially and educationally backward classes—striking a balance between formal equality and real-world equity. 📚 Introduction In India, equality isn’t about treating everyone the same, but about ensuring that everyone starts from a level playing field. This is where the Right to Equality and the concept of affirmative action (especially reservations) come together. The Constitution promises equality of opportunity but also recognizes that centuries of discrimination—especially caste-based—cannot be erased without positive support for disadvantaged groups. 📜 Key Constitutional Provisions Article 14 – Equality before the law and equal protection of laws for all persons. Article 15 – Prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. Article 15(4) – Allows special provisions for socially and educationally backward classes, SCs, and STs. Article 15(5) – Permits reservations in educational institutions, including private ones (excluding minority-run). Article 16 – Equal opportunity in public employment. Article 16(4) – Allows reservations in jobs for backward classes not adequately represented. Article 16(4A) – Enables reservations in promotions for SCs/STs. 🔁 Equality vs Equity Formal equality (Article 14): Treats everyone the same. Substantive equality (affirmative action): Gives special treatment to historically oppressed groups so they can compete fairly. 🟢 The Constitution favors substantive equality, to correct past injustices and ensure inclusive development. 🧑‍⚖️ Landmark Supreme Court Judgments 1. Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992) – Known as the Mandal Commission case.– Upheld 27% OBC reservations.– Introduced the “creamy layer” concept—economically advanced OBCs should be excluded from quota benefits.– Set the 50% cap on total reservations (except in extraordinary situations). 2. M. Nagaraj v. Union of India (2006) – Upheld reservation in promotions, but only if: There is quantifiable data showing backwardness and inadequate representation. It doesn’t affect administrative efficiency. 3. Jarnail Singh v. Lachhmi Narain Gupta (2018) – Refined Nagaraj. Said no need to prove backwardness again for SCs/STs for promotions. 4. EWS Reservation – 103rd Amendment (2019) – Introduced 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) in general category.– Upheld by Supreme Court in Janhit Abhiyan v. Union of India (2022).– Marked a shift by including economic criteria in affirmative action. 📈 Who Benefits from Reservations Today? Category Quota (%) Scheduled Castes (SC) 15% Scheduled Tribes (ST) 7.5% Other Backward Classes (OBC) 27% Economically Weaker Sections (EWS – General) 10% Total Up to 59.5%, sometimes more in certain states ⚖️ Ongoing Debates Should reservation be caste-based or income-based? Is the 50% cap still relevant after the EWS judgment? Are creamy layer principles fairly applied? Should private sector be brought under the reservation umbrella? 🧠 Why It Matters Ensures representation of historically excluded communities in education and jobs Promotes social justice and inclusion But requires careful implementation, so it does not dilute merit or breed resentment 🧩 Conclusion Equality in India is not about sameness—it’s about fairness. Affirmative action, when implemented wisely, is not favoritism; it is a tool to level the field after centuries of structural discrimination. The Constitution doesn’t just give rights—it empowers the State to correct deep-rooted injustices and build a truly inclusive India.

While both India and the USA guarantee freedom of speech, their constitutional foundations, scope, and limitationsdiffer significantly—India allows reasonable restrictions, whereas the USA upholds almost absolute free speech with very narrow exceptions. 📚 Introduction Freedom of speech and expression is a hallmark of any democratic society. Both India and the United States recognize this right as fundamental to individual liberty, but how they protect, limit, and interpret this freedom is very different. Let’s explore how these two largest democracies approach free speech, what’s allowed, what’s restricted, and why these differences matter. 🇮🇳 Freedom of Speech in India – Article 19(1)(a) “All citizens shall have the right to freedom of speech and expression.” However, this freedom is not absolute. The Constitution of India (Article 19(2)) allows the state to impose “reasonable restrictions” on this right. ✅ Grounds for Restriction (Article 19(2)): Sovereignty and integrity of India Security of the State Friendly relations with foreign states Public order Decency or morality Contempt of court Defamation Incitement to an offense This means that hate speech, obscenity, sedition, or defamation can legally be restricted—even punished. 🧑‍⚖️ Key Indian Cases Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015)– Struck down Section 66A of the IT Act, reaffirmed that vague speech laws are unconstitutional. Romesh Thapar v. State of Madras (1950)– Recognized freedom of the press as part of free speech. S. Rangarajan v. P. Jagjivan Ram (1989)– Held that there must be a clear and present danger to public order for censorship to be valid. 🇺🇸 Freedom of Speech in the USA – First Amendment “Congress shall make no law… abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press…” In the United States, freedom of speech is absolute, with very few exceptions. The First Amendment is a prohibition on the government, meaning it cannot interfere with speech, even if it is unpopular or offensive. 🚫 Exceptions (Very Narrow): Incitement to violence (Brandenburg v. Ohio) Obscenity (Miller v. California) Defamation (New York Times v. Sullivan) True threats or fighting words Child pornography Perjury or fraud The “clear and present danger” test has been replaced with the “imminent lawless action” standard, offering stronger protections than in India. 🧑‍⚖️ Key US Cases Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)– Speech is protected unless it incites imminent lawless action. New York Times Co. v. United States (1971)– Pentagon Papers case; reaffirmed freedom of the press. Texas v. Johnson (1989)– Flag burning was upheld as protected symbolic speech. ⚖️ Key Differences at a Glance Feature India 🇮🇳 USA 🇺🇸 Basis Article 19(1)(a) & 19(2) First Amendment Restrictions 8 broad grounds Only specific exceptions Hate speech Can be criminalized Usually protected Defamation Criminal & civil Only civil (and very narrow) Press freedom Not absolute Strongly protected Religious insults Can be restricted Protected under satire, parody 🧠 Why the Difference? India follows a balancing model, weighing free speech against social harmony and national interest. USA follows a libertarian model, believing in maximum individual liberty, even at the risk of offending others. India’s restrictions are rooted in its diverse, plural society, while the US prioritizes individual liberty over collective sensitivity. 🧩 Conclusion Both India and the USA value freedom of speech—but they draw the lines differently. While the USA protects almost all speech, including hate and symbolic protest, India places greater emphasis on societal order, morality, and national unity. Understanding these contrasts is key to appreciating how democracies function under different cultural, historical, and legal frameworks.

Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, originally limited to protection against unlawful arrest, has evolved into a source of multiple fundamental rights—from privacy to livelihood, dignity, environment, education, and beyond. 📚 What Does Article 21 Say? “No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.” On the surface, this may sound like a procedural safeguard against arbitrary detention. But over time, judicial interpretation has turned it into the heart of fundamental rights in India. 🧱 Phase 1: Narrow Interpretation 🧑‍⚖️ A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950) Early interpretation of Article 21 was narrow and literal. The Court held that as long as there’s a “law” and procedure is followed, personal liberty can be restricted—even if the law is unjust. This meant no connection between Article 21 and other rights like Article 19. 🟥 Problem: The state could pass harsh laws and still stay “within the law.” 🧱 Phase 2: Liberal Interpretation Begins 🧑‍⚖️ R.C. Cooper v. Union of India (1970) Broke the “compartmentalization” of rights. Held that fundamental rights are interconnected and cannot be read in isolation. This laid the foundation for a more holistic approach to interpreting Article 21. 🧱 Phase 3: The Turning Point 🧑‍⚖️ Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978) A passport was seized without explanation, leading to a major legal battle. The Court overruled A.K. Gopalan, and said: “The procedure under Article 21 must be just, fair, and reasonable—not arbitrary, fanciful, or oppressive.” ✅ Connected Article 21 with Articles 14 (equality) and 19 (freedom).✅ Established substantive due process in India. This judgment opened the floodgates for new rights under Article 21. 🌱 Phase 4: Expansion into Implied Rights The Supreme Court began reading new rights into Article 21, making it the source of numerous socio-economic and personal freedoms. Key Rights Recognized Under Article 21: Right Recognized Case Right to Livelihood Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985) Right to Education Mohini Jain (1992), Unni Krishnan (1993) Right to Privacy Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017) Right to Clean Environment M.C. Mehta cases Right to Legal Aid Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar (1979) Right to Dignity and Death with Dignity Aruna Shanbaug (2011), Common Cause (2018) Right Against Sexual Harassment Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997) 📘 Justice K.S. Puttaswamy Case (2017) – Privacy as a Fundamental Right A 9-judge bench unanimously held that Right to Privacy is a part of Article 21. This ruling had far-reaching effects on: Aadhaar Data protection Surveillance laws LGBTQ+ rights 🧠 Why Article 21 Is So Powerful It’s flexible and living—can be interpreted to meet new challenges. It protects both civil and socio-economic rights. It acts as a bridge between the Constitution and evolving human rights standards. 🧩 Conclusion The evolution of Article 21 shows how a simple line in the Constitution became a shield of human dignity in Indian democracy. What started as a procedural right has now become the foundation for almost every meaningful freedom we enjoy today. As India continues to grow and modernize, Article 21 remains the soul of the Constitution, ensuring that life is not just about existence—but about living with freedom, fairness, and dignity.

The Doctrine of Colourable Legislation prevents lawmakers from bypassing constitutional limits by disguising a law’s real objective, ensuring legislative honesty and accountability. 📚 Introduction In a democracy, laws must be made for legitimate purposes, and within the powers granted by the Constitution. But what if a legislature pretends to make a law on one subject, while actually aiming to control something it has no authority over? That’s where the Doctrine of Colourable Legislation comes into play. It says: “What cannot be done directly, cannot be done indirectly.” This doctrine stops lawmakers from doing indirectly what they are not constitutionally allowed to do directly. 🧠 What Is Colourable Legislation? The term “colourable” doesn’t mean anything colorful—it means “pretend” or “disguised.” So, a colourable legislation is a law that claims to be about one subject, but is actually made for another (unauthorized) purpose. ⚖️ Origin of the Doctrine The doctrine is based on the principle of separation of powers and constitutional limitations. Every legislature in India—whether it’s Parliament or a State Assembly—can only make laws on subjects assigned to it under the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution. If a law crosses that line, even in disguise, it is invalid. 📘 Landmark Case: K.C. Gajapati Narayan Deo v. State of Orissa (1953) The Orissa legislature passed a law aiming to abolish zamindari rights. A zamindar challenged it, claiming that the law targeted him personally, which the State had no power to do. The Supreme Court held that the law was not colourable, because the real object—land reform—was within the State’s power. However, this case clarified what would count as colourable legislation: When form and label of the law suggest one thing, But substance and reality show something else. 📘 Another Example: State of Bihar v. Kameshwar Singh (1952) A Bihar law took over large estates without fair compensation. It claimed to be about land reform, but actually targeted specific individuals unfairly. The Court found this to be colourable legislation and struck it down. ✅ Key Elements of the Doctrine Focuses on the true substance of the law—not just its wording Checks if the law masks its real intention Prevents legislative fraud or evasion Applies only when a legislature is exceeding its powers, not to policy decisions 🧾 How Courts Apply the Doctrine Examine the subject matter and objective of the law Check if the legislature had competence to make the law Identify whether the law’s true effect intrudes into another’s domain If the answer reveals dishonest or hidden intent, the law is struck down. ❌ What It’s Not It’s not about how fair or useful a law is It’s about legislative competence and genuineness of intent A bad policy isn’t colourable—a dishonest one is 🧩 Conclusion The Doctrine of Colourable Legislation is like a lie detector for laws. It ensures that every law passed by a legislature is genuine, honest, and within its constitutional boundaries. It reminds lawmakers that the Constitution doesn’t just care about what you say—but what you’re really trying to do.

The Doctrine of Pith and Substance helps determine the true nature of a law when there’s a conflict between Central and State laws, ensuring that legislative powers are respected without invalidating overlapping laws unnecessarily. 📚 Introduction India follows a quasi-federal system where powers are distributed between the Union and State Governments through three lists in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution: Union List (List I) – Central Government powers State List (List II) – State Government powers Concurrent List (List III) – Both can legislate But what happens when a State law seems to intrude into Central jurisdiction or vice versa? This is where the Doctrine of Pith and Substance steps in—it helps the courts look beyond the surface and understand the true nature and intent of the law. 🔍 What Is the Doctrine of Pith and Substance? “Pith” means essence or core, and “Substance” means true meaning. So, the doctrine means that if a law’s core subject falls within the powers of the lawmaker (State or Centre), it is valid—even if it incidentally touches subjects from another list. The focus is on what the law is really about, not just what it appears to deal with on the surface. 🧠 Why It’s Needed Laws are complex and often touch multiple subjects Helps prevent the unnecessary invalidation of laws Ensures federal flexibility while preserving the division of powers 📘 Landmark Case: State of Bombay v. F.N. Balsara (1951) The Bombay Prohibition Act restricted the sale of liquor. A challenge was made that it also affected import and export, which falls under the Union List. The Supreme Court upheld the Act, saying that its pith and substance was public health and morals (State subject), not trade or commerce (Union subject). 📘 Another Important Case: State of Rajasthan v. G. Chawla (1959) The Rajasthan law controlled the use of loudspeakers. Though it affected freedom of speech, the pith and substance was public order and noise control, which is a State subject. The Court upheld the law. ✅ Key Features of the Doctrine Focuses on intent: Looks at the law’s main objective, not minor overlaps Allows incidental encroachment: Minor interference with another list is acceptable Protects legislative powers: Prevents laws from being struck down on technical grounds 🧾 How Courts Apply the Doctrine When deciding on legislative conflict, the court asks: What is the true purpose of the law? Does it primarily deal with a subject under the State/Union’s authority? Are overlaps incidental or substantial? If the answer supports the legislature’s power, the law survives, even if there’s some overlap. ⚖️ Related Doctrines Doctrine of Harmonious Construction – Used when two laws from different lists must be read together. Doctrine of Colourable Legislation – Used when a law pretends to be on one subject but actually legislates on another (bad faith). 🧩 Conclusion The Doctrine of Pith and Substance is a balancing tool in Indian federalism. It allows practical flexibility while respecting the Constitution’s division of powers. Instead of mechanically striking down laws with overlaps, courts use this doctrine to uphold legislative intent and constitutional harmony. It’s yet another example of how the Indian judiciary ensures that the law is not just about lines on paper—but about purpose and justice.

The Doctrine of Eclipse and the Doctrine of Severability are tools used by courts to either temporarily hide or surgically remove unconstitutional parts of laws, ensuring that the rest of the legislation survives and aligns with the Constitution.  Introduction Not all laws are perfect. Sometimes, a part of a law violates the Constitution. Should the entire law be thrown out? Or can we fix the bad part and keep the rest? This is where the Doctrine of Eclipse and the Doctrine of Severability help. They’re like legal first-aid tools that the courts use to save good laws from being completely invalidated. Doctrine of Eclipse  What It Means The Doctrine of Eclipse says that a law that violates Fundamental Rights isn’t dead—it’s just overshadowed (eclipsed) and becomes unenforceable. But if the constitutional conflict is removed, the law can shine again. This doctrine is usually applied to pre-Constitutional laws—laws that were made before the Constitution came into effect (26 Jan 1950).  Example: Bhikaji Narain Dhakras v. State of M.P. (1955) A transport law passed before 1950 was challenged because it violated Article 19(1)(g) (right to carry on business). The Court held that the law was eclipsed, not void. Later, when the Constitution was amended to allow such laws, the eclipse was removed, and the law became valid again.  Key Points Applies to pre-Constitution laws Law is not void, just temporarily ineffective Can be revived if the reason for unconstitutionality is removed Doctrine of Severability What It Means The Doctrine of Severability allows the court to cut off (sever) the unconstitutional part of a law and keep the rest if it is still valid and workable. Think of it like cutting off a rotten branch of a healthy tree instead of chopping the whole tree down. Example: R.M.D. Chamarbaugwalla v. Union of India (1957) A law regulating gambling was challenged. The Court severed the unconstitutional parts and upheld the rest of the law that regulated games of skill. Key Points Applies to both pre- and post-Constitution laws If the valid and invalid parts are separable, the valid portion survives Protects the intent of the legislature ⚖️ Comparison Table Feature Doctrine of Eclipse Doctrine of Severability Applies to Pre-Constitution laws Any law (pre or post Constitution) Result Law becomes dormant (not void) Unconstitutional part is removed Revival possible? Yes, if the conflict is removed Not needed, as the rest continues Why These Doctrines Matter 🛡️ Protect legislative intent – They save useful laws from being totally scrapped. ⚖️ Maintain constitutional harmony – Helps laws stay within the framework of Fundamental Rights. 🔧 Provide flexibility to judiciary – Offers tools for nuanced interpretation.  Conclusion The Doctrine of Eclipse and Doctrine of Severability are the judiciary’s smart tools to ensure that laws don’t fall apart just because one section is unconstitutional. These doctrines preserve the good, remove the bad, and protect the Constitution’s integrity. They’re a perfect example of how the law isn’t always black or white—it often requires careful balancing and thoughtful interpretation.

The Doctrine of Constitutional Morality ensures that laws, governance, and court decisions are not only legal but also align with the values and principles enshrined in the Constitution, such as justice, dignity, liberty, and equality. 📚 Introduction What if a law is technically valid but deeply unfair? What if a custom is popular but violates someone’s dignity? This is where Constitutional Morality steps in. It’s not about personal beliefs or social customs—it’s about adhering to the ethical spirit of the Constitution. This doctrine guides the interpretation and implementation of laws to reflect justice, equality, and democratic values. 🧠 What Is Constitutional Morality? In simple terms, Constitutional Morality means loyalty to the core principles of the Constitution. These include: Rule of law Equality Liberty Secularism Justice Respect for diversity and dignity The idea is: even if a law is passed by Parliament or a custom has public support, it must still uphold constitutional values. “What is morally wrong cannot be legally right if it violates the Constitution.” 🏛️ Historical Origins The term was first used by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who said: “Constitutional morality is not a natural sentiment. It has to be cultivated. We must learn to respect the law and the limits of power.” Ambedkar believed that for democracy to survive in India, people must respect constitutional limits over personal or majority whims. 📜 Rise of the Doctrine in Indian Jurisprudence Although the idea was discussed earlier, recent Supreme Court rulings brought it to the forefront: ⚖️ Landmark Cases Using Constitutional Morality Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018) Decriminalized homosexuality (struck down Section 377 IPC) The Court said constitutional morality must prevail over social morality. Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala (2018) (Sabarimala case) Allowed entry of women into the Sabarimala temple Court ruled that patriarchal religious customs violate equality and dignity. Joseph Shine v. Union of India (2018) Decriminalized adultery Held that laws treating women as property violate constitutional values. Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973) Though not using the exact phrase, the Basic Structure Doctrine is rooted in constitutional morality. 🤝 Why It Matters Goes beyond legality to justiceHelps judges assess whether a law or action aligns with constitutional ethics. Protects minority and individual rightsShields citizens from majoritarianism and outdated customs. Empowers judicial reviewAllows courts to evaluate laws based on values, not just procedures. ❗ Critics Say… Some argue that constitutional morality gives too much power to judges to interpret morality as they see fit, which might risk subjective or activist rulings. However, courts have generally grounded the concept in constitutional texts and values, not personal opinions. 🧩 Conclusion The Doctrine of Constitutional Morality is not a rigid rulebook—it’s a moral compass for Indian democracy. It ensures that every law, judgment, and government action respects the soul of the Constitution, especially the dignity of individuals and the idea of justice for all. It reminds us: being constitutional isn’t just about obeying the law—it’s about honoring the values behind it.

The Doctrine of Separation of Powers ensures that the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary function independently and keep each other in check, forming the backbone of a democratic and accountable government. 📚 Introduction Imagine a cricket match where the players, umpires, and commentators are all the same people. Sounds chaotic, right? That’s why democracies like India rely on a principle called the Doctrine of Separation of Powers—so that no branch of the government becomes too powerful. Instead, the power to make laws, enforce them, and interpret them is divided among three organs: Legislature – Makes laws (Parliament) Executive – Implements laws (Government) Judiciary – Interprets laws (Courts) This separation is crucial to maintain checks and balances and to prevent abuse of power. 📜 Historical Background The idea was developed by Montesquieu, a French political philosopher, in his famous work “The Spirit of Laws”(1748). He believed that concentrating power in one hand leads to tyranny, and liberty can be preserved only by dividing government power. Modern democracies including India, the USA, and the UK have adopted this concept—though with variations. 🇮🇳 Separation of Powers in the Indian Constitution Unlike the U.S. Constitution, India does not explicitly mention “separation of powers”, but the idea is inherent in the Constitution’s design. Key provisions that reflect this separation: Article 50 – Directs the State to separate the judiciary from the executive (Directive Principle) Articles 121 & 211 – Bar discussion on judges’ conduct in Parliament or State Assemblies Articles 122 & 212 – Courts can’t question legislative proceedings Judicial Review – Allows judiciary to strike down unconstitutional actions by the legislature or executive 🔁 How the Three Organs Work Together – But Separately Branch Role Example Legislature Makes laws Parliament passes bills like GST Act Executive Implements laws PM and Cabinet ensure laws are enforced Judiciary Interprets laws Supreme Court hears challenges to new laws While they are independent, there is some overlap, which makes India’s version a “functional” separation, not an absolute one. ⚖️ Landmark Cases on Separation of Powers Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973)– Recognized separation of powers as part of the Basic Structure Doctrine. Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975)– Held that election-related judicial review cannot be eliminated by Parliament. State of Bihar v. Bal Mukund Shah (2000)– Warned against judicial overreach into legislative/executive domains. Raj Narain Singh v. Chairman, Patna Administration (1954)– Clarified limits of executive discretion under legislative framework. 🧠 Why It Matters 🛑 Prevents dictatorship – No one branch can become all-powerful. ⚖️ Maintains rule of law – Powers are bound by constitutional limits. ✅ Promotes accountability – Each organ is answerable in its own sphere. ❗ Challenges in Practice In India, there have been instances of overreach or encroachment: Judicial activism (courts directing policies or governance) Ordinances by executive bypassing Parliament Legislative interference in judicial matters (post-judgment amendments) But such tensions are part of a healthy democracy, provided each organ respects the spirit of constitutional balance.