Category: Code of Civil Procedure(CPC)

What is ADR? Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) refers to non-judicial methods of resolving disputes, where parties settle their issues outside the courtroom with the help of neutral facilitators. ADR mechanisms are faster, cost-effective, and help reduce the burden on courts. Legal Basis: Section 89 of CPC Section 89 CPC mandates that if the court believes that a dispute can be settled outside court, it shall refer the parties to one of the ADR methods. Introduced through the 2002 Amendment to promote amicable dispute resolution. ADR Methods Recognized Under CPC ADR Method Who Facilitates It? Key Features Arbitration Arbitrator(s) chosen by parties Binding, quasi-judicial, governed by Arbitration Act Conciliation Conciliator helps parties negotiate Informal, non-binding unless settlement reached Mediation Neutral mediator guides discussion Voluntary, confidential, focuses on mutual agreement Judicial Settlement Referred to another judge Functions like a mediator; binding if settlement is reached Lok Adalat Conducted under Legal Services Authority Statutory, settlement has force of a civil court decree Section 89: Step-by-Step Process Court identifies possibility of settlement Parties are referred to ADR (under Section 89 + Order X Rule 1A) ADR process conducted by neutral forum Settlement reached?  Yes → Court records it as decree No → Case resumes in regular court Objectives of ADR Under CPC To ensure speedy justice To promote out-of-court settlements To reduce pendency of civil suits To maintain relationships between parties (especially in family or business disputes) Order X Rule 1A, 1B, 1C – Procedural Guidance Rule Description Rule 1A Court shall direct parties to opt for ADR after hearing Rule 1B Parties appear before ADR forum/counseling center Rule 1C If ADR fails, court resumes the trial When Can ADR Be Used?  Civil suits involving: Contracts and commercial disputes Matrimonial or family issues Partition and property disputes Banking, insurance, and service-related matters  Not suitable where: Dispute involves criminal liability Cases requiring urgent injunctions Issues of public interest or constitutional interpretation

What is the Examination of Parties? The examination of parties is the initial oral questioning of the plaintiff and defendant by the court. Its purpose is to: Identify the real issues in dispute Clarify admissions and denials Assist in framing of issues Governed by Order X Rules 1 and 2 of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 When Does It Happen? The examination of parties takes place after the filing of pleadings (plaint and written statement) and before the trial formally begins. Legal Provisions: Order X CPC  Order X Rule 1 – Ascertainment of Matters in Dispute The court may examine both parties in person or through a representative. The aim is to identify what facts are agreed and what facts are disputed. Helps in framing the issues for trial. Order X Rule 2 – Oral Examination to Clarify Allegations The court may question a party to: Clarify ambiguous statements Remove doubt or vagueness Ensure fair trial preparation This rule is particularly helpful when pleadings are unclear or evasive. Purpose of Examination Objective Explanation ✅ Framing proper issues Clarifies points of agreement and dispute ✅ Preventing unnecessary trials Helps in settlement or referral to ADR (Alternative Dispute Resolution) ✅ Speeding up the process Reduces the burden of irrelevant evidence ✅ Assisting in early admissions May lead to partial decree or striking out issues Is It a Cross-Examination? ❌ No.This is not a cross-examination. It is a preliminary clarification tool used by the judge, not by the lawyers. Examination in Special Situations In commercial suits or complex litigation, this step becomes crucial for early case management. It can also lead to referral to mediation or alternative dispute resolution if issues narrow down.  

What is an Ex Parte Decree? An ex parte decree is a judgment passed by the court in the absence of the defendant, when: The defendant fails to appear on the date of hearing despite being duly summoned. The court proceeds with the case and passes judgment based only on the plaintiff’s side. Governed by Order IX Rule 6 and can be challenged under Order IX Rule 13. Legal Provision: Order IX Rule 13 CPC A defendant against whom an ex parte decree has been passed may apply to the court to set aside the decree if: Summons was not duly served, or There was sufficient cause for non-appearance. If the court is satisfied, it can set aside the decree and reopen the case. Grounds to Set Aside Ex Parte Decree Ground Explanation ❗ Improper service of summons Defendant never received proper notice of the suit ❗ Sufficient cause for absence Genuine reasons like illness, accident, wrong court date, etc. ❌ Negligence or avoidance Not a valid ground – must prove good faith Time Limit to File Application The application must be made within 30 days from the date the defendant: Became aware of the decree, or Was served with notice of its execution Procedure to Set Aside Ex Parte Decree Application filed under Order IX Rule 13 Plaintiff is given notice Both parties are heard If court finds valid grounds, it may: Set aside the decree, and Fix a new date for trial When Court Will Not Set Aside Decree If the defendant was duly served And had no sufficient cause for absence Or if the decree has already been partly executed or satisfied Effect of Setting Aside The case is reopened Both parties are heard on merits Trial starts afresh from the stage before the decree Difference: Setting Aside vs Appeal Basis Order IX Rule 13 (Setting Aside) Appeal under Section 96(2) Grounds Procedural (non-appearance) Substantive (legal or factual errors) Focus Validity of absence Merits of the judgment Can both be filed? Yes, but not simultaneously Only one remedy must be pursued

What is Adjournment? An adjournment means postponing or rescheduling a court hearing to another date. In civil cases, adjournments may be granted when parties or lawyers are unable to proceed with the hearing on the scheduled date due to valid reasons. Governed by Order XVII of the Code of Civil Procedure (CPC), 1908) Grounds for Seeking Adjournment A party may request adjournment for reasons such as: Illness of party or counsel Non-availability of crucial witness Incomplete evidence or documents Need for time to file reply or additional documents Unexpected emergencies (natural calamities, court strikes) Legal Provisions: Order XVII Rule 1 Key Highlights: Court may grant adjournment if it is satisfied that there is sufficient cause. The party must record reasons in writing. Court may impose costs for adjournment to discourage misuse. No party shall be granted more than three adjournments during the hearing of the suit (as per 2002 Amendment). Limit on Adjournments: 3-Time Rule Rule Explanation Maximum 3 adjournments A party may not be granted adjournment more than three times without exceptional reasons After 3 chances Court can refuse adjournment even if inconvenience is caused Costs may be imposed To compensate the other party and prevent deliberate delays ⚠️ This rule ensures speedy disposal and discourages tactical delays in litigation. Effect of Unjustified Adjournments Wastes judicial time Causes harassment to the opposite party Delays justice and increases litigation cost May result in adverse inference by the court Judicial Discretion Despite the 3-time restriction, the court has inherent discretion to grant further adjournments in the interest of justicewhere circumstances are extraordinary (e.g., medical emergency, death of a party). Important Case Law 🔹 K.K. Velusamy v. N. Palanisamy (2011) Adjournments cannot be claimed as a right. Court has discretion, but it must be judicially exercised. 🔹 Salem Bar Association v. Union of India (2005) Upheld the three adjournment rule and emphasized its importance for timely justice. Conclusion Adjournments are an important procedural tool, but they must be used sparingly and honestly. The CPC strikes a balance by allowing limited flexibility while protecting the right to a fair and speedy trial. Unnecessary adjournments hinder justice; therefore, courts and parties are expected to use them only when genuinely required.

What is a Written Statement? A written statement is the formal reply submitted by the defendant in response to the plaintiff’s plaint. It contains the defendant’s defense, admissions, denials, and counter-arguments. It is governed by Order VIII of the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908. Purpose of Written Statement To answer the claims made in the plaint To deny, admit, or explain each allegation To state legal defenses and material facts To raise set-off or counter-claims, if any Time Limit to File Written Statement Scenario Time Allowed Ordinary civil suit 30 days from service of summons Maximum extension Up to 90 days (with court’s permission) Courts may allow late filing only for valid reasons, and must record reasons for the delay. Key Features of a Written Statement Feature Explanation Denial must be specific General denials are not sufficient All defenses must be stated Defendant must raise all available legal defenses Admissions are binding If the defendant admits any part, it is treated as established Set-off and counter-claim Can be included, subject to CPC rules Verification required Written statement must be verified and supported by an affidavit Set-Off and Counter-Claim (Order VIII Rules 6–6G) Set-Off: A claim by the defendant against the plaintiff for a debt owed, arising out of the same transaction. Counter-Claim: A separate claim by the defendant, which can be unrelated to the plaintiff’s claim, but must be raised before the defendant’s defense is closed. Consequences of Not Filing a Written Statement The court may pronounce judgment in favor of the plaintiff. The defendant may be barred from contesting the claim. Court may proceed ex parte (without hearing the defendant). However, Order VIII Rule 10 gives the court discretion—it is not automatic. Format of a Written Statement (Essential Components) Title of the suit Court and case number Denial or admission of each para in the plaint Legal defenses Reliefs claimed (if any) Set-off or counter-claim (if applicable) Verification and affidavit Conclusion The written statement is a vital part of civil proceedings, allowing the defendant to present their side and challenge the plaintiff’s claims. A well-drafted written statement must be specific, timely, and complete, as it shapes the course of the trial.

What Is a Plaint? A plaint is the written complaint or statement filed by the plaintiff to initiate a civil suit. It sets out the cause of action, facts, and relief claimed. But not every plaint can be entertained by the court where it is filed. If a court finds it lacks jurisdiction, the plaint is returned. Legal Provision: Order VII Rule 10 CPC “The plaint shall at any stage of the suit be returned to be presented to the court in which the suit should have been instituted.” This means the court does not reject the case, but returns it to be filed in the proper court. Grounds for Return of Plaint A plaint can be returned if: Reason Explanation Lack of territorial jurisdiction Suit filed in a court outside the proper geographic area Lack of pecuniary jurisdiction Claim value exceeds or falls below the court’s limit Lack of subject-matter jurisdiction Court not empowered to deal with that type of case Procedure for Return of Plaint The judge passes an order returning the plaint. A memo of reasons is attached. The plaintiff can then file it in the proper court, using the same plaint. Under Order VII Rule 10A, the court must notify the plaintiff and fix a time for appearance in the correct court. Difference Between Return and Rejection of Plaint Feature Return of Plaint (O7 R10) Rejection of Plaint (O7 R11) Meaning Plaint is sent to proper court Plaint is completely dismissed Effect Case can be continued in right court Case must be refiled entirely if allowed Ground Jurisdictional defect Legal defects in the plaint (no cause of action, etc.) Scope for Reuse Yes, same plaint reused No, fresh plaint required Conclusion The return of plaint protects both parties and the court by ensuring that cases are tried in the correct forum. It does not defeat the suit but simply redirects it to the appropriate court—ensuring fair trial and jurisdictional compliance.

What Are Pleadings? Under the CPC: A plaint is the written statement filed by the plaintiff. A written statement is the defense filed by the defendant. These documents are collectively called pleadings (as per Order VI Rule 1), and they form the foundation of a civil suit. What is Amendment of Pleadings? An amendment of pleadings means making changes, additions, or corrections to the plaint or written statement after filing. This is governed by Order VI Rule 17 of CPC, which allows either party to apply to the court for permission to amend pleadings. Text of Rule “The Court may at any stage of the proceedings allow either party to alter or amend his pleadings in such manner and on such terms as may be just…” Proviso: No amendment shall be allowed after the trial has commenced, unless the court concludes that the party could not have raised the matter earlier despite due diligence. Purpose of Amendment To bring out the real issues in dispute To correct errors, omissions, or misstatements To ensure a fair and complete adjudication Types of Amendments Allowed Type of Amendment Example Adding new facts or grounds Including a newly discovered document Correcting errors Fixing typographical mistakes or wrong dates Changing relief sought Increasing the compensation amount Substituting parties Correcting the name of a legal heir or company Conditions for Granting Amendment The court will allow amendment only if: It is necessary to decide the real issue. It does not cause injustice or prejudice to the other party. It is not intended to delay the trial or change the nature of the suit entirely. It is made before commencement of trial (preferably). After the trial starts, the “due diligence” test is strictly applied. When Is Amendment Refused? ❌ If it introduces a new and inconsistent cause of action❌ If it is made with delay and causes prejudice❌ If it is vague or unnecessary Procedure to Amend Pleadings File an application under Order VI Rule 17 CPC Court considers the necessity, timing, and impact If allowed, the amended pleading is submitted and served to the other party The other party may be permitted to respond afresh

What is a Cause of Action? A cause of action is the bundle of facts that gives a person the right to sue. In simpler terms, it’s the reason behind filing a civil suit. When a party wants to claim multiple legal rights through a single suit, this involves the joinder of causes of action. Joinder of Causes of Action – Order II Rule 3 Meaning A joinder of causes of action means combining two or more claims against the same or different parties in one single suit, provided that: The court has jurisdiction over all claims, and Joining them together is not inconvenient or prejudicial to the other party. Purpose Avoid multiple suits Reduce cost and time Promote judicial efficiency When Can Causes of Action Be Joined? As per Order II Rule 3, a plaintiff may unite several causes of action in one suit: Against the same defendant Or against multiple defendants if the claims are connected and arise out of the same transaction or series of acts Example: Joinder Allowed A sues B: For unpaid rent And for damage to the same rented property ✅ Both causes of action can be joined, as they are related and involve the same parties. Misjoinder of Causes of Action Meaning A misjoinder occurs when: Unrelated claims or Claims against different defendants without a common link are combined in a single suit improperly. Effect The court may: Strike out the unrelated cause(s) Or order separate trials But will not dismiss the suit unless the misjoinder causes injustice or confusion Legal Provision: Order II Rule 6 If causes of action are misjoined and it appears to the court that they cannot be tried together, the court may order separate trials or make other directions for disposal. Joinder of Plaintiffs or Defendants (Related Rule) Under Order I Rule 1 and 3, multiple plaintiffs or defendants can join in a suit if: Their causes of action arise out of the same transaction or A common question of law or fact is involved Table: Joinder vs Misjoinder of Causes of Action Basis Joinder Misjoinder Definition Combining multiple related claims Improper combination of unrelated claims Legality Permitted under Order II Rule 3 Objectionable; may require correction Outcome Saves time and cost May lead to splitting of suits Court’s Power Allowed if not inconvenient Court can strike out or order separate trials

Who Are ‘Parties’ in a Suit? In any civil case, parties are the persons who initiate the case or defend against it. These are broadly divided into: Party Type Role Plaintiff The person who files the suit (claimant) Defendant The person against whom the suit is filed A civil suit cannot proceed without identifying the proper parties. Essential Parties 1. Plaintiff (Order I Rule 1) Must be a person who has a legal right to sue. Can be one or more persons having the same cause of action. 2. Defendant (Order I Rule 3) A person against whom relief is claimed. Multiple defendants can be joined if the act or transaction is common. Types of Parties in a Civil Suit Party Type Description Necessary Party A party without whom no effective order can be passed Proper Party A party whose presence helps the court completely adjudicate the matter Pro forma Defendant A person made a defendant but no relief is sought against them Co-plaintiffs / Co-defendants Multiple persons on one side having common interest or claim Third Party A party added later under court’s direction (e.g., Order I Rule 10(2)) Representative Party One party representing a group under Order I Rule 8 (e.g., class action) Addition or Substitution of Parties Under Order I Rule 10 CPC, the court has discretion to: Add or strike out parties at any stage Substitute a party if needed (e.g., in case of death or legal disability) The goal is to ensure that all real parties in interest are before the court. Misjoinder and Non-joinder of Parties Misjoinder: Including someone who shouldn’t be a party Non-joinder: Leaving out someone who should be a party A suit is not dismissed just for these reasons unless it involves a necessary party. Representative Suits (Order I Rule 8) When numerous persons have the same interest in a suit (like residents of a colony or shareholders), one or a few may file the suit on behalf of all — known as a representative suit.  Requires court’s permission and public notice. Case Example A files a suit against B for encroachment on land jointly owned by A and C. C is a necessary party, as his rights will also be affected by the judgment. If A excludes C, the court may direct addition of C as co-plaintiff or co-defendant. Conclusion Identifying the correct parties is essential for a suit to be maintainable and binding. Courts ensure that: No party is wrongfully excluded or added Judgment affects only those who had a chance to be heard

What is a Foreign Judgment? A foreign judgment is defined in Section 2(6) of CPC as: “A judgment of a foreign court.” A foreign court (Section 2(5)) is any court situated outside India and not established by the Indian government. Key Provisions of CPC on Foreign Judgments Section Subject Section 13 When a foreign judgment is conclusive in India Section 14 Presumption as to the competency of the foreign court When is a Foreign Judgment Conclusive? (Section 13) A foreign judgment is conclusive and enforceable in India, unless it falls under any of these six exceptions: Ground of Inconclusiveness Explanation (a) Not pronounced by a competent court The foreign court must have jurisdiction (b) Not given on the merits of the case It must not be an ex parte or technical dismissal (c) Appears to be founded on a wrong view of Indian law Must not violate Indian legal principles (d) Opposed to natural justice Judgment must follow fair procedure (e) Obtained by fraud If fraud is proven, judgment becomes invalid (f) Sustains a claim based on a breach of Indian law Must not enforce an illegal or immoral act under Indian law Presumption Under Section 14 Indian courts will presume that the foreign judgment was pronounced by a competent court, unless disproved. This means the burden to challenge the jurisdiction lies on the party opposing the judgment. Enforcement of Foreign Judgment in India There are two ways to enforce a foreign judgment in India: 1. By Filing a Suit (General Rule) File a civil suit in India based on the foreign judgment. The court will check if it meets Section 13 requirements. 2. Execution (Under Section 44A) If the judgment is from a “reciprocating territory”, it can be directly executed in India like a local decree. Countries like UK, Singapore, Bangladesh, UAE, etc. are notified as reciprocating territories. Example A UK court awards ₹10 lakh to A against B. B owns property in India. Since UK is a reciprocating territory, A can directly execute the UK decree in an Indian District Court under Section 44A. Important Case Law R. Viswanathan v. Rukn-ul-Mulk (1963) Explained that a foreign judgment can be challenged in India if it falls under Section 13 exceptions. Satya v. Teja Singh (1975) A U.S. divorce decree was held invalid in India as it was obtained by misrepresentation and fraud. Conclusion Foreign judgments are enforceable in India, but only if they meet certain conditions under Section 13. Courts ensure that such judgments do not violate Indian laws, public policy, or principles of natural justice. This ensures a balance between international comity and domestic fairness.