Category: Indian Constitution

Ratio decidendi and Obiter dicta

October 13, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

Ratio decidendi and Obiter dicta Ratio decidendi Ratio decidendi is a Latin term that means “the reason for the decision.” It refers to the legal principle or rule that is the basis for a court’s decision in a case. This principle is what future courts will follow when deciding similar cases. These are binding on future cases. Ratio Decidendi Example The ratio decidendi of the Kesavananda Bharati v State of Kerala 1973 SC case is the establishment of the basic structure doctrine. The Supreme Court held that while the Parliament has wide powers to amend the Constitution under Article 368, it does not have the power to alter or destroy the basic structure or framework of the Constitution. This principle is binding and has been followed in numerous subsequent cases. For example in Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain, 1975 SC Context: This case challenged the election of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Application: The Supreme Court applied the basic structure doctrine to strike down the 39th Amendment, which sought to place the election of the Prime Minister beyond judicial review. The court held that judicial review is part of the basic structure of the Constitution. Obiter dicta Obiter dicta is a Latin term that means “things said by the way.” In simple terms, it refers to comments or observations made by a judge in a court’s decision that are not essential to the outcome of the case. These remarks are not binding in future cases but can be persuasive. Obiter Dicta Example In Kesavananda Bharati v State of Kerala 1973 SC judges observed that while the Constitution must be flexible to adapt to changing times, this flexibility should not extend to altering its basic structure. They emphasized the need for a balance between allowing amendments and preserving the core principles of the Constitution. Besides this court also discussed about the concept of secularism, and discussed about preamble, fundamental rights in this case. Judges also commented on the role of the judiciary in safeguarding the Constitution. These discussions and observations of the court was not essential for the outcome of the case, hence it was an obiter dicta.

Indian Constitution, Interview, judiciary, Law, Legal

Bijoe Emmanuel v. State of Kerala (1986)

October 10, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

Background: Three siblings—Bijoe, Binu, and Bindu Emmanuel—were expelled from a school in Kerala for not singing the national anthem (Jana Gana Mana) during the school assembly. The children, belonging to the Jehovah’s Witnesses faith, stood respectfully during the anthem but did not sing it, citing religious beliefs. Key Issue: Whether the expulsion of the students for not singing the national anthem violated their fundamental rights under the Indian Constitution, specifically: Article 19(1)(a) – Freedom of speech and expression. Article 25(1) – Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice, and propagation of religion. Arguments: State’s Argument: The State of Kerala contended that singing the national anthem was a fundamental duty and a sign of respect towards the nation. Petitioners’ Argument: The children argued that their faith did not permit them to sing the anthem, although they stood respectfully while it was being played. Supreme Court’s Observations: The Court recognized the children’s right to freedom of speech and expression, which includes the freedom not to sing. It emphasized that the children’s respectful silence during the anthem indicated that they did not disrespect the national anthem. The Court also highlighted that Article 25 protects the freedom to practice one’s religion, and coercing the children to sing would violate this right. Judgment: The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Emmanuel siblings, holding that their expulsion violated their fundamental rights under Article 19(1)(a) and Article 25. It was stated that no constitutional law requires citizens to sing the national anthem; standing in respect suffices. Key Takeaways: This case established that freedom of expression includes the freedom to remain silent. It reinforced the principle that personal beliefs and conscience should be respected, as long as they do not disturb public order. The judgment emphasized tolerance and respect for diverse beliefs, shaping the interpretation of religious freedom in India. Impact: The decision is a landmark in upholding individual rights over forced conformity. It set a precedent for balancing national pride with personal beliefs, highlighting that true patriotism respects diversity and individual rights. Conclusion: The Bijoe Emmanuel case is a reminder that the Indian Constitution protects the rights of individuals to express their beliefs freely, ensuring that faith and conscience are not compromised in the name of nationalism.

Indian Constitution

September 25, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

WRITS The state and its instrumentalities, such as the police, universities, and other government bodies, exist to serve the nation and fulfil public duties. However, there are times when these very entities violate our rights, leaving us with no other option. In such instances, we can seek help and assistance from the court by applying for special orders known as writs. Thus, writs are special orders issued by superior courts to protect people’s rights and ensure that justice is done. These writs are five in number. These writs serve as an effective mechanism through which the judiciary can uphold the rights of individuals when those rights are violated, particularly by the state or public authorities, and in some cases even by private individuals. In India, two courts have the authority to issue writs: Supreme Court (Article 32): Writs only for fundamental rights. High Courts (Article 226): Writs for fundamental rights and other legal rights. Habeas Corpus Habeas Corpus is a Latin term which literally means “you may have the body”. The writ is issued in the form of an order calling upon a person by whom another person is detained to bring that person before the Court and to let the Court know by what authority he has detained that person. Who can apply for the writ: The general rule is that an application can be made by a person who is illegally detained, But in certain cases, an application of habeas corpus can be made by any person on behalf of the prisoner, i.e., a friend or a relation. Burden of proof The burden of proof to justify detention has always been placed on the detaining authority. Writ against private individual The Supreme Court of India clarified this in the case of Kanu Sanyal v. District Magistrate, Darjeeling (1973). In this landmark judgment, the Court emphasized that the writ of habeas corpus can be issued not only against public authorities but also against private individuals if it is proven that they are unlawfully detaining someone. Case Law and Example: Mohd. Ikram Hussain v. State of U.P. (1964) All Facts: Mohd. Ikram Hussain was arrested and detained by the police under the suspicion of having committed a crime. His family believed that the detention was illegal, as he was not produced before a magistrate within the stipulated time, and there was no legal basis for his continued detention. The family filed a petition in the Allahabad High Court, seeking a writ of habeas corpus to challenge the illegal detention and secure his release. Judgement: The Allahabad High Court issued the writ of habeas corpus and ordered the police to bring Mohd. Ikram Hussain before the court to justify his detention. Upon reviewing the facts, the court found that: The detention was illegal, as the police had not followed due process, including presenting him before a magistrate within the required time. The court directed his immediate release, as there was no valid reason for his continued detention. Similarly, the detention becomes unlawful if a person who is arrested is not produced before the Magistrate within 24 hours of his arrest and he will be entitled to be released on the writ of habeas corpus. It can also be issued in case of child’s custody cases by one parent against the other. Mandamus The word “mandamus” means “the order” or “we command”. When it is used: If a government officer or body is not performing its duty, you can approach the court for a mandamus writ to compel them to act. For instance, a licensing officer is under a duty to issue a licence to an applicant who fulfils all the conditions laid down for the issue of such Licence. But despite the fulfilment of such conditions if the officer or the authority concerned refuses or fails to issue the licence the aggrieved person has a right to seek the remedy through a writ of mandamus. Allahabad High Court issued a writ of mandamus to direct the Regional Passport Officer to issue a passport to the petitioner. (Basoo Yadav v. Union of India, 2022 All) When it will not lie. —A writ of mandamus will not be granted in the following circumstances: (1) When the duty is merely discretionary in nature the writ of mandamus will not lie. State of M. P. v. Mandawara,’ the M. P. Government made a rule making it discretionary to grant dearness allowance to its employees at a particular rate. The Supreme Court held that the writ of mandamus could not be issued to compel the Government to exercise its power. (2) A writ of mandamus does not lie against a private individual or any private organisation because they are not entrusted with a public duty.’ (3) A writ of mandamus cannot be granted to enforce an obligation arising out of contract.’ Prohibition A writ of prohibition literally means “to forbid”. It is issued primarily to prevent an inferior court or tribunal from exceeding its jurisdiction or acting contrary to the rules of natural justice. It is issued by a superior Court to inferior courts for the purpose of preventing inferior Courts from usurping a jurisdiction with which it was not legally vested, or in other words to compel inferior courts to keep within the limits of their jurisdiction. Thus the writ is issued in both cases where there is excess of jurisdiction and where there is absence of jurisdiction. Hari Vishnu Kamath v. Syed Ahmad Ishaque (1955) Facts: This case involved an election dispute where the Election Tribunal’s decision was challenged. Reasoning: The Supreme Court issued a writ of prohibition to prevent the Tribunal from proceeding further, as it had acted beyond its jurisdiction. East India Commercial Co. Ltd. v. Collector of Customs (1962) Facts: This case involved the seizure of goods by customs authorities without proper jurisdiction. Reasoning: The Supreme Court issued a writ of prohibition to prevent the customs authorities from proceeding further, as they had acted beyond their jurisdiction….

History of the Constitution of India

September 25, 2024September 25, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

Basic Overview 1600- Arrival of the British : The British East India Company (EIC) arrived in India in 1600 as traders with exclusive trading rights granted by Queen Elizabeth I. 1764- Battle of Buxar : Transition to Power: Initially focused on trade, the EIC gained political power after winning the Battle of Buxar in 1764, securing Diwani rights (revenue collection) in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. 1857- British Crown Control: Following the Revolt of 1857, the British Crown took direct control of India from the EIC and ruled until India gained independence on August 15, 1947. 1950- Constitution of India: Formation of the Constitution: After independence, the Constituent Assembly was formed in 1946 to draft the Indian Constitution. Adoption of the Constitution: The Constitution of India was adopted on January 26, 1950. Full Concept History of the Constitution of India Regulating Act of 1773 Background: The British Parliament passed the Regulation Act of 1773 due to the inefficiency of the dual system introduced by Robert Clive in 1765. Purpose: This was the first step to regulate and control the East India Company’s affairs. Centralised Administration: It established a centralised administration in India. Hierarchy: Made the Governors of Bombay and Madras presidencies subordinate to the Governor-General of Bengal. Official Recognition: The political and administrative functions of the East India Company in India were officially recognised for the first time. Pitt’s India Act of 1784: Created a dual system of control with the British government having supreme control over the company’s affairs. Established the Board of Control to oversee the East India Company’s civil, military, and revenue affairs. Charter Act of 1793: Renewed the East India Company’s charter for 20 years. Allowed the company to continue trade and administrative functions in India. Extended the company’s monopoly on trade with India. Charter Act of 1813: Ended the East India Company’s monopoly on trade with India, except for trade in tea and trade with China. Allowed missionaries to come to India and promote education. Charter Act of 1833: Centralised the administration of India under the Governor-General. Ended the East India Company’s commercial activities, making it an administrative body only. Provided for the establishment of a law commission to codify Indian laws. Charter Act of 1853: Renewed the company’s charter but did not specify a time limit. Introduced a competitive examination for the recruitment of civil servants. Created a separate legislative council for India. Government of India Act, 1858: Transferred control of India from the East India Company to the British Crown. Established the office of the Secretary of State for India. Created the Indian Civil Service under the direct control of the British government. Indian Councils Act 1861: Introduced Indian representation in the legislative process. Allowed the Viceroy to nominate Indian members to his expanded council. Indian Councils Act 1892: Expanded the powers of legislative councils and increased the number of Indian members. Introduced indirect elections for the legislative councils. Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms): Introduced separate electorates for Muslims. Expanded legislative councils at both central and provincial levels. Increased Indian participation in governance. Government of India Act 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms): Introduced dyarchy in the provinces, dividing subjects into transferred and reserved categories. Expanded the central and provincial legislative councils and increased Indian representation. Indian Independence Act of 1947: Granted independence to India and Pakistan. Ended British rule in India. Provided for the partition of India and the establishment of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan.

Indian Constitution

Police Brutality

November 11, 2023 toahostinger No Comments

Police Brutality This article tries to highlight police brutality, which is when the police use excessive force because police brutality seriously violates human rights. It can be said that society is impacted by the police’s harshness, cruelty, and ruthlessness towards helpless and vulnerable people. The state’s most powerful and in charge branch of government is the police. They are employed to help those in need, settle disagreements and disputes, assist the weaker groups, offer security and recourse, and uphold law and order in the community, but officers abuse their authority. The history of Indian police will be discussed in this article, including how it first developed and its current structure. Further articles describe an analysis of police behavior in which ways police misuse their power or which type of excessive or physical force is used by the policeman. The article also focuses on police brutality laws, controls, and police complaint procedures. Introduction The word police are derived from the Latin word “Politia”, which means state or administration. The Police Act, of 1861 defines the term police in section 1 as “police” includes all persons who shall be enrolled under the Act. The word brutality is derived from the French word “Brutal” which means severity, harshness, or fierceness. It is the psychological or physical intimidation of innocent people through a variety of tactics, such as unlawful detention, torture, abuse, physical assault, etc. The police’s roles and responsibilities include serving the community, reducing crime, upholding the rule of law, settling interpersonal issues, etc. When people disobey the law and order, the police may use excessive force to quell the violence, which is when police brutality happens. Sometimes it is based on racial discrimination means discrimination against any person based on caste, creed, region, religion, sex, etc. Police brutality can be mental, physical, verbal abuse racial profiling, and false imprisonment. There are so many nations with laws against police brutality. Although it is considered a serious infraction, there are still many instances where citizens’ or victims’ complaints never even get to the point of an investigation. Historical Background Of Police In India The pre-19th-century background of the police in India will be covered in this essay. The notion of a separate regular police force did not exist throughout the British era, and the relevant period was immediately following the creation of the rule. Warren Hastings initiated several laws for police reforms in 1774 during the Company’s authority, which subsequently culminated in the Police Act of 1861. The execution of the recently constituted Sindi territory was given to Sir Charles Napier. To capture this dangerous and crime-ridden area, he reorganized the local police apparatus, ensuring that it would provide the required outcomes and operate as intended. After independence, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the first Union home minister, recognized the importance of civil services in India, and the Islington Commission Report first referred to it as the Indian Police Service in 1917. Numerous acts were passed after independence, including the CRPF Act, of 1949, The Kerala Police Act, of 1960, and The Mysore Police Act, of 1963, etc, were promulgated. In 1951 the All India Services Act was enacted constituting an All India Service known as the IAS and IPS. Read Also Freedom Of Speech Kinds Of Police Brutality Illegal Detention The term “illegal detention” describes constraints placed on a person by police officials acting within the scope of their legally recognized authority to administer the legal process but without any legally recognized justification, such as a valid arrest warrant, reasonable suspicion, or permission. It is also known as a false arrest or detention. Racial Discrimination Racial discrimination is when police officers treat poor people unfairly or illegally based on factors such as caste, creed, color, gender, sex, religion, age, region, etc. Police personnel reject complaints from people of lower castes. Sexual Harassment When police officers act improperly or abuse their authority by physically, verbally, or orally assaulting somebody, it is known as sexual harassment. It refers to any victim or prisoner being harassed illegally. For example, sexual assault during a late-night traffic stop, and coercive, rape by a corrections officer. Wrongful search and seizure In many common and civil law legal systems, wrongful search and seizure refers to the practice of police officers or other authorities and their agents searching a person’s property while under suspicion of committing a crime and seizing any evidence they find that is connected to the crime. Only a few nations’ constitutions include clauses guaranteeing people’s freedom from “wrongful or unreasonable searches and seizures.” The main premise of this right is that everyone has a legitimate right to privacy. Laws Related To Police Brutality The organization is recognized by the constitution as a quasi-federal body that is specified in Article 246 and listed in the State List of the Seventh Schedule and it is outside the scope of the state’s particular government’s authority to enact laws governing the police in that state. But policing directives are entirely federal. The Indian Police Act of 1861 governs the country’s police administration. This act has been passed by 28 Indian states and 8 union territories. After all, there are numerous contradictions or issues in the Indian police system. There Are Mainly Three Types Of Laws Under Which A Case Can Be Filed Against Police Brutality Public Law Criminal Law Private Law In this article, we will deal with two laws i.e., Public and Criminal law because most cases are filed under these two laws. Public law The Indian Constitution is where public law for police administration first appeared. In the third part of the constitution, which addresses violations of fundamental rights, the courts have consistently held the police force and the state accountable for excessive force under public law and assessed damages and punishment against both the state and police officers. Criminal law Under Sections 197 and 132 of the Criminal Procedure Code, police systems are liable to be protected from unjustified allegations. The Criminal Procedure Code, which was passed in 1973, provides procedural safeguards to police…

Judicial Review Protecting The Spirit Of The Constitution

November 5, 2023 toahostinger No Comments

Judicial Review Protecting The Spirit Of The Constitution Article 13 aids the court and citizens to keep the power of the legislature under the survivals Article 13 describes the means for judicial review it enjoys a duty on the state to respect and implement the fundamental right and at the same time Article 13 confers the power on the code to declare a law or act as a void if it infringes the fundamental right that judiciary place an important role as a protector of the guardian of the fundamental right the primary responsibility of the implementation of the rule of law lies within the judiciary that purpose of judicial review is to ensure that democracy is inclusive and there is accountability for those who are in power. The Constitution of India has guaranteed the power to the Supreme Court and High Court of judicial review to protect the spirit of the Constitution which means fundamental rights the legislative bodies have the law-making power but judicial bodies have the power to review laws whether they violate the basic principle of the fundamental right to protect the fundamental right Supreme Court and High Court design with the power of judicial review. Introduction Law plays a very crucial role in today’s society we the people of India have given up on our rights and entered into a contract with the Government of India in which the government gave us protection against the wrongdoing of the society this is also known as social contract theory which was propounded by Hobbes. To protect the law from getting miss used by arbitrary power and to keep the check and balance on the power of each government the doctrine of judicial review was adopted by the US Constitution doctrine of judicial review first time was used in the Marbury v/s Madison case in the USA in 1803 Through using the instrument of judicial review the court can declare any law as void which goes against the Constitution and its fundamental principle it took a lot of time and patience to fix and feature judicial review in our Constitution judiciary has played an important role concerning judicial review, judicial review can be made in the Constitution amendment legislature action laws made by the legislature. Court has declared judicial review as the basic structure of the Constitution which means it can never be amended or can never be removed. We have three organs of government in our society legislature executive and judiciary legislature makes the law executive implements and executes the law and the judiciary keeps checks on both of the organs but these powers have not been implied in the strict sense. The power of judicial review is vested in articles 1332 131 to 136 143 to 26 145 246 251 254 and 372. History Of The Judicial Review The doctrine of judicial review was laid down in Marbury v. Madison Judicial review was the act that came from the case of Marbury v. Madison in 1803 it was the landmark case of the US Supreme Court which established the principle of judicial review in the U.S. The origin of this case was in 1801 when President John Adams was supposed to leave the presidential house of the US as he lost the election to the upcoming President Thomas Jefferson in 1800 just before 2 days of expiring of his tenure as president in March 1801 he appointed several judges who supported his federalist party. But current Secretary of State John Madison was unable to deliver all the commissions of the New judges before Adams’s departure later Jefferson the new President believed that undelivered commissions were void and instructed Madison not to deliver them one of the undelivered commissions was of Williams Marbury was a Maryland businessman and a strong supporter of Adam when Madison continuously refused to deliver his commission, the Marbury Supreme Court filed a writ petition under the mandamus asking the court to force Madison to deliver his commission. The later court refused to entertain the plea and opposed the order of legislature this is when the use Supreme Court struck down the doctrine of judicial review. What can be obtained by maintaining the principles of judicial review? The supremacy of the Constitution is maintained The Constitution is supreme and the law of the land it is important to maintain its dignity and to check that any law any act does not hear or violet the authenticity of the Constitution judicial review keeps check and balance on the power of the legislature and does not allow them to make any law which can violate the spirit of the Constitution. Federal Equilibrium State and union have been allotted different sectors to make law in their list but whenever there is a conflict arising between the union and State judicial review handles the dispute to solve the problem arising between both union and State this way judicial review maintains the federal equilibrium between the government. protection of Fundamental rights. The major role of judicial review was to protect the fundamental rights that were provided to the citizens of India due to the protection of judicial review no law can touch Independence of judiciary Judiciary is the one of the main organs of society if the judiciary does not work independently, it will not be able to deliver fair and just justice to the victims so the judicial review does not allow the legislature or the executive to interfere in the work of the judiciary. Intercepting the misuse of With so much power legislature and executive can perform certain activities which are not valid in the Constitution so to protect the misuse of the power of the executive and legislature judicial review plays an important role. Features of Judicial Review Judicial review power can be exercised by both the Supreme Court and High Courts Under Article 226 of the Constitution, a person can approach the High Court if his fundamental right is violated or any legal…

Indian Constitution

Honour Killings In India

November 4, 2023 toahostinger No Comments

Honour Killings In India Honour killing is one of the cultural offences in the nation. The killing of a (usually female) family or clan member by one or more (mainly male) family members who feel the victim has brought dishonour upon the family, clan, or community is frequently referred to as a “customary killing“. As honour killings are not gender-specific, many of their occurrences go unreported and uninvestigated due to the embarrassment that such an admission would entail. The main goal is to make the family member look bad. Three sections make up the current article. In the first section, there is a brief discussion of the definition of honour killing and its reasons. The laws that are already in place and those that have been proposed for judicial decisions to stop them are also included in the second part. The third and last portion of the article explores the potential for additional rules and regulations to apply to it. Introduction Honour killings are carried out by relatives who believe that doing so will purify their group. They murder one of the members to earn back the family’s reputation and rid them of the shame and disgrace that that person had brought upon them. A male relative murders the female who disobeyed them and disobeyed the family. This is a type of premeditated murder perpetrated against the person who disgraced the family. Most often, these behaviours result from triggers set off by close family members, the community, or nearby neighbours who make the accused feel degraded and agitated. Most of these are directed at females who are thought to have committed sexual or marital crimes. When a member of the community chooses someone from a different caste, it creates inequity in a society where everyone is treated fairly and without prejudice. Since a girl’s caste and position shift when she reaches her husband’s home, caste and status are the main causes of it in the modern world. The study’s objectives are to learn more about honour killing, emphasise its seriousness, educate society about its repercussions, and look into the contributing elements. Background In many different societies today, honour killing is still a long-standing ritual. It started long before the Islamic era, but they were more common during it. Some authors assert that honour killing happens everywhere, while others assert that it is specific to certain communities in Southeast Asia and the Middle East, where it is deeply ingrained in traditions and customs that date back to ancient times. Some analysts claim that the Baleech and Pashtun tribes of Balochistan engaged in the practice of honour killing. In the past, adultery and rape were regarded as immoral behaviours in Rome, and women’s lives were taken to preserve the honour of the home and community. Women are seen as less than men in Greek society, but they are also the victims of men. It has been proven that numerous women were executed for adultery or on suspicion of adultery in ancient Egypt and among American tribes under the guise of honour crimes. Definition Of Honour Killing According to Human Rights Watch, “honour killings” are acts of violence, most often murder, carried out by male family members against female family members who are believed to have tarnished the family name. For many reasons, a woman may come under the family’s wrath, such as refusing to participate in an arranged marriage, being the victim of sexual assault, requesting a divorce—even from an abusive husband—or engaging in adultery. An attack on a woman’s family can begin simply with the idea that she has acted in a way that “dishonours” them. Reasons Of Honour Killing The following are the specific justifications for honour killing. Refusal to accept an arranged marriage: Whether a male or female family member refuses to accept the marriage that has been planned by the family, they will be slain for the benefit of the family. When a person declines the marriage that the family has arranged, the family members experience a certain amount of guilt. Divorce: The victim of an honour killing would be a married person who sought a divorce due to problems in their marriage with their family. When a member of the family feels that the victim would rather die than live, they may decide to kill the person themselves rather than seek a divorce because it will damage the family’s reputation. Family member allegations and rumours: The victim may become the target of family member allegations or rumours spread by the community at large. Because of their status and reputation, the family members would murder the member, whether they knew the truth or not. According to them, killing the victim will boost the family’s reputation and position. Homosexuality: It is now considered normal when love develops between people of the same sex. When a couple of the same sex wishes to live together, the family or society forbids it, which in turn leads to more and more accusations and upsets the family members. Victims of rape: Women are being raped in a society where they ought to be protected. In that scenario, it is the responsibility of the family to accept such victims, but they see it with shame and believe the girl’s life is over and she is wholly useless to them and society as a whole, so they plan to kill her. Inter-caste marriage: When a victim marries someone from a different caste, the party who views their caste as significant and more important than their family members suffers. In this situation, the lower caste member would rather kill the victim than allow them to live by raising their caste. They would kill the victim even though they were a member of their family in cases where the victim belonged to a lower caste because caste is the foundation of their prestige. Not only do their family members become victims, but the other party they want to live with also suffers. Legislative Framework Concerning Honour…

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Indian Constitution, Law

Freedom of Religion

October 21, 2023 toahostinger No Comments

Freedom of Religion People of Asia are very closely related to their religion. For people religion is everything, they want to follow their religion and live their life with their religious beliefs. What is the Right to Freedom of Religion guaranteed by the Indian Constitution? As India is a Secular country, the word secular is interpreted with different meanings all over the world. So, What is Secularism in India? How it is introduced in Indian Constitution and how it is different from other countries. What is religious freedom according to the American Constitution? How the Supreme Court of India has interpreted Freedom of Religion and what are reasonable restrictions on this freedom? Introduction Religion is deeply connected to the people of Asia. As in the case of India, a country with a history of the oldest civilization having faith in religion. In India people have been followers of their religion since ancient times, they worship their Gods according to their beliefs. India has a vast diversity of people with different religious beliefs. So it is very essential to understand ‘what is religion?’, ‘How it is interpreted in India?’, So that we can understand its freedom and restrictions in the current period what role does the Supreme Court of India play in the protection of these freedoms, and how does the Government control it with reasonable limits? As no right can be provided without any restrictions for its effective enjoyment. So what are reasonable limits concerning Freedom of Religion? How does India with a diversity of people be able to secure its secular status how Secularism is interpreted in India and how it is different from other countries of the world? So to completely understand these questions we need to know what is religion. What is Religion? A belief in the existence of God, who is superior to everything and is the controller of everything in the universe. A person is said to be a follower or believer of a religion who follows the religion in the manner provided by that religion and worships God as per that religion. The word religion is nowhere defined in the Constitution of India and indeed it is a term that is hardly susceptible to any rigid definition. The Supreme Court of India has defined the word religion in its various judgments. In H.R.E vs L.T.Swamiar, the Supreme Court interpreted religion broadly as a matter of faith with individuals or communities and it is not necessarily theistic. A religion may only lay down a code of ethical rules for its followers to accept, it might prescribe rituals and observances, ceremonies, and modes of worship which are regarded as integral parts of religion, and those forms and observances might extend even to matters of food and dress. Fundamental Right of Freedom of Religion [ Article -25 ] The right is not absolute, this right is subject to public order, morality, health, and the other provisions of Part 3 of the Constitution. Also under sub-clauses a and b of cl 2 of Article.25, the state is empowered by law (i) to regulate or restrict any economic, financial, political, or other secular activity that may be associated with religious practice, (ii) to provide for social welfare and reform, and to throw open Hindu religious institutions of a public character to all classes and section of Hindus. Thus, under Article 25(1) a person has twofold freedom; (a) freedom of conscience, and (b) freedom to profess, practice, and propagate religion. The freedom of conscience is the absolute inner freedom of the person to mold his relation with God in whatever manner he likes. To ‘profess’ a religion means to declare freely and openly one’s faith and belief. • To ‘practice’ religion is to perform the prescribed religious duties, rites, and rituals, and to exhibit his religious beliefs and ideas by such acts as prescribed by the religion. To ‘propagate’ means to spread and publicize his religious view for the edification of others. But the propagation only indicates persuasion and exposition without any element of coercion. Restrictions on Freedom of Religion As no right is absolute, every right is subject to some restrictions. The reasonable restrictions on Freedom of Religion as provided by the Constitution of India are : 1-Religious liberty subject to public order, morality, and health: In the name of religion, no act can be done against public order, morality, and health. Such acts, which fall under these restrictions can not be justified on plea of practice of religious rites. In the name of religion ‘untouchability or traffic in human beings’ can not be tolerated. 2-Regulation of economic, financial, political, and secular activities associated with religious practice: The freedom to practice extends only to those activities which are the essence of religion. It doesn’t cover secular activities that do not form religion’s essence. It is not always easy to say which activities fall under religious practice or which are of a secular, commercial, or political nature associated with religious practice. Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs [ Article 26] : Article 26 of the Constitution of India Guarantees certain rights to the religious denomination of any section of religion. The word Denomination is not defined in the Constitution of India. According to Webster’s Dictionary, it means “Collection of individuals classed together under the same name”. The Supreme Court of India in S.P.Mittal VS Union of India provided three requirements to be fulfilled for being a religious denomination, requirements are: [1] It must be a collection of individuals who have a system of beliefs that they regard as conducive to their spiritual well-being. [2] must have a common organization. [3] It must be designated by a distinctive name. So, what Art. 26 says is that, subject to public order, morality and health every religious denomination of any section of it shall have the following rights: To establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes, To manage its affairs in matters of religion, To own and acquire movable and immovable…

Death penalty abolition or retention

October 16, 2023 toahostinger No Comments

Death penalty abolition or retention For a long time death penalty has been a topic that is surrounded by controversy also the oldest form of punishment for every era death penalty is considered the most strict and the oldest ancient form of punishment. that have existed capital punishment or the death penalty has always been the most relevant and important topic of debate in India and it should be important to come to light in India this penalty is given in the rarest of rare cases whereas if we look at other countries like the UK. has abolished the death penalty last death penalty was practiced in 1964 in the UK it was not easy to abolish the death penalty in the UK but they finally managed to do that whereas in India last execution was performed in 2020 March in the Nirbhaya case. Introduction Society is made of two-component crime and criminals which has resulted in a disturbance in social peace and community is getting disturbed by the crime and criminals to deal with such issue government come with a punishment sentencing that should be in correspondence with the crime done by the individual means the nature of punishment should be equal to nature of the crime. In the case of Suraj Ram versus the state of Rajasthan, the supreme court held that the state should consider the rights of criminals while awarding sentences to be fair but the state should also consider we can to get justice further court elaborated that the purpose of sentences the criminal should never be and unpunished and Victim should never be unsatisfied. The most controversial punishment is the death penalty or capital punishment J.R.R. Tolkien said many that live deserve death and some that die deserve life. Background Death punishment is been practiced over the centuries in the 18th century BC King Hembury of Babylon performed capital punishment for 25 different crimes during the Mughal Era barbeque method also put offenders to death even the British use to used the hanging method to punish the offenders 14th century BC Kohli used this penalty in the 17th century this penalty was made for all kinds of crime by BC decorate Athens. Also, Captain George Candle in the Jameson colony of Virginia in 1608 was first executed for spying on Spain in 1612, the death penalty was given even for minor crimes. Retention versus abolition debate Many people believe that they do not believe in capital punishment as it takes the life of a person which cannot be taken by anyone except God some believe that the penalty is the only solution to teach a lesson to criminals who perform severe crimes there were so many aspects of both abolitions somewhere promoting the moral values and ethics in favor to abolish the capital punishment others were looking in the theory of deterrence to provide justice to society and victims by hanging. Theory of deterrence In the view of abolitionist abolished the person who commits a crime like murder or rape is not in his senses while performing such moment he remains in the inactive state of mind and he is not aware of what he is doing and what could be the consequences while performing such as he is lost in the wave of emotion, giving death penalty cannot do justice to him, moreover it can also not decrease the crime rate death penalty is an unnecessary act. whereas receptionists said that fear of death is a deterrent if a person is in fear of death then he will think twice before committing some serious or any kind of crime, the punishment provides justice to the victims and stops the crimes that could happen in the future. Crime rate Abolitionist argues that the penalty has no direct or indirect connection with crime rates this is just a custom or a procedure that is followed by the government it does not result in a decrease in the crime rate of the country this argument was taken from the study of theologist Stallin he in his study after collecting the data from the United State of America concluded that that penalty is just a custom it has no role in decreasing the crime rate. Retentionists have the opposite view According to them capital punishment or death brings fear in the mind of the person who is thinking of committing any kind of crime does it directly or indirectly reduce the crime rate Professor Isaac in his article pointed out some loopholes in the study of Stalin according to him the work of Stallin’ neither develop nor tell the full range of implication. Society’s rights Abolitionist stated that no one in the society has right to award death to any person the kind of punishment it can only be done through the act of God also Death punishment somewhere harm the human rights of the person whereas retentionist argued that since the right to death is only can be done through the God not through any person but to provide justice to the victims and the society accused must be punished in a fair way and with the fair punishment which is equal to his crime like murder rape terrorist attack cannot be tolerated and accused must be punished to death. Retention in India Dead penalty in India has been practiced for a very long time from the Mughal Era to British rule used to punish with capital punishment British applied the death penalty under the Indian Penal Code 1860 in 1931 on 27 January question of the abolition of capital punishment was raised by the Mr. Gaya Prasad Singh however this motion was rejected later Mr. Mukund Lal Agarwal introduced a bill of the abolition of capital punishment on August 23, 1956, in the first Lok Sabha of the republic of India it was later rejected but the discussion continued and topic of cropping down this punishment continued later in 1962 a resolution was passed…

Criminal Law, Indian Constitution, Indian Penal Code, Law

Divorce Under Hindu Marriage Act 1955

October 14, 2023 toahostinger No Comments

Divorce Under Hindu Marriage Act 1955 Divorce was not a concept that existed in ancient times. They viewed marriage as a sacred institution. Manu asserts that a husband and wife are inseparable and their marital bond cannot be severed. Later, the idea of Divorce entered the scene and became commonplace as a way to dissolve a marriage. The Arthashastra states that a marriage can end if both parties want to do so and that it should be an unauthorized union. Manu, however, rejects the idea of the dissolution. Manu asserts that the demise of either spouse is the only way to end a marriage. The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 introduced the clause relating to the idea of Divorce. Divorce is referred to as the dissolution of a marriage in the Hindu Marriage Act. The marriage or married connection must be protected from all harm for the reasons outlined by law for the benefit of society. Only grave circumstances allow for Divorce; all other circumstances offer an option. Grounds of Divorce under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 Based on Section 13(1) of the Hindu Marriage Act, any of the displeased spouses can go to court and demand a Divorce with the culpability theory of the law. Only the wife can apply to the court for a Divorce under the conditions outlined in Section 13(2). 1. Adultery In many nations, the idea of adultery may not be viewed as a crime. However, according to the Hindu Marriage Act, adultery is one of the most significant grounds for Divorce when it comes to matrimonial offenses. Adultery is defined as consensual and voluntary sexual activity between a married person and another member of the opposite sex, whether they are already married or not. If the marriage of the husband and his second wife is deemed to constitute bigamy, even their sexual relations are grounds for adultery. The Marriage Laws Amendment Act of 1976 added the idea of adultery to the Hindu Marriage Act. In Swapna Ghose v. Sadanand Ghose In this case, the wife found her husband with another girl lying on the same bed and the neighbor also confirmed that the husband had committed an offense. Here the wife gets the Divorce. 2. Cruelty Both mental and physical cruelty are included in the concept of cruelty. The term “physical cruelty” refers to when one spouse physically harms or beats the other spouse. Physical cruelty can be easily identified, while mental cruelty is more difficult to define. What is considered as Mental Cruelty against Husband by wife: Humiliating the husband in front of his family and friends. Making false allegations against him. Wife having affair. Wife living an immoral life. The constant demand for money. Aggressive and uncontrollable behavior of Wife. Ill-treatment to the husband’s parents and family. 3. Desertion Desertion is when one spouse is permanently abandoned by the other without their consent or any justifiable excuse. Generally speaking, when one side refuses to accept the responsibilities of marriage. Essentials abandonment of the other spouse forever. rejection of the marital obligation. without any justifiable basis. no agreement from a second spouse. 4. Conversion The other spouse has the right to petition the court for a Divorce if one of the spouses changes his or her religion without the other spouse’s consent. Illustration A, a Hindu, has two kids and a wife named B. Without B’s permission, A went to church one day and decided to become a Christian. Now B can go to court and ask for a Divorce based on A’s conversion. 5. Venereal Illness According to this theory, a sickness that is contagious and can be passed on to the other spouse qualifies as a legal reason for Divorce. Illustration On September 9, 2011, A and B got married. A later developed an untreatable venereal illness. If B lives with A, there’s a chance she could contract the sickness as well. B may now apply to the court for the dissolution of their marriage. Divorce with Mutual Consent as an Idea By mutual permission of the parties, the individual may submit the Divorce petition by Section 13B. The parties must wait one year from the date of marriage if they desire to end their marriage by mutual consent. Conclusion There are several provisions surrounding Divorce in the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955. “Divorce as a Dissolution of Marriage” is defined under the Hindu Marriage Act. According to this view, a marriage may be dissolved if one spouse is guilty or liable for a crime that falls under the category of matrimonial offenses. The innocent spouse is entitled to Divorce as a remedy. Written By:- Sonu Kumar

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Category: Indian Constitution

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Death penalty abolition or retention

Divorce Under Hindu Marriage Act 1955

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