Category: Law

Most important questions of Muslim law

July 21, 2025July 21, 2025 toahostinger No Comments

•Most Important Questions of Muslim Law Q.1. Who is a Muslim? How far IJMA is a source of Muslim law? Can IJMA be used for the further development of Muslim law? Q.2.Discuss the various sources of Muslim Law. Q.3.Write a note on the schools of Sunnis. Q.4.Marriage among Muslim law is not sacrament,but purely a civil contract.Discuss this statement with reference to the contractual nature of a Muslim marriage. Q.5.Examine the validity of the following: (i) A marriage with a woman undergoing iddat (ii) A marriage with a wife’s sister after the death of wife Q.6.Write short notes on the Nature of Muslim Marriage. Q.7.In Abdul Kadir v. Salima, (1886) 8 All 149,Justice Mahmood stated, “Marriage among Muslims is not a sacrament but purely a civil contract.”On the other hand,another noted scholar of Muslim Law, Abdul Rahim states that marriage among Muslims is both an Ibadat (devotional act) as well as muamlat (dealings among men). In the light of these statements, discuss the exact nature of Nikah,pointing out its essentíal features and referring to case-law wherever required. Q.8. What relations are prohibited from marrying on the ground of consanguinity,by a Muslim male? (RJS 1986) Q.9. Distinguish between ‘Batil’ and ‘Fasid’ marriage. In which category will you place the following:- (a) Marriage with a woman undergoing Iddat. (b) Simultaneous marriage with two consanguine sister. (c) Marriage with a fifth wife during the life time of four wives. (d) Marriage with a Christian woman. (e) Marriage in contravention of the rule of Kufr. Q.10. How can irregular marriages be made under the Muslim Law? (DJS 2015) Q.11. ‘State briefly the Muslim Law of Dower’.How far does it differ from the Hindu Law of Maintenance?A husband agrees to give his wife as Dower next years crops.The Wife files a suit to recover the same.Decide the suit. Q.12.(A) Explain what is “Mehr” in relation to a Muslim marriage. Can its payment be deferred either wholly or in part? (B) Whether “Mehr” can be termed as debt and thus a charge on the property ot the husband? (C) Can the payment of the ‘Mehr’ be excused, if so, by whom? Q.13. Write short note on Mehar-i-Misal. Q.14. State the nature and kinds of Mahr.Whether a Muslim widow can retain her husband’s property in lieu of Mahr? Whether right to receive Mahr and enjoyment of the property is transferable or heritable. Discuss with the help of Maina Bibi’s Case? Q.15.What is the nature of widow’s right of retention of the husband’s property in case her dower remains unpaid?Whether this right of retention is heritable and transferable?.Give views of the various High Courts. Q.16.Write short note on Iddat. Q.17. Distinguish between ‘Talaq-ul-biddat’ and ‘Talaq-ul-sunnat’ and state when ‘Talaq’ becomes irrevocable. Q.18. Draw distinction between the following: Ahasan Talak and Hasan Talak. Q.19. Write short note on Khula. (RJS 1971) Q.20. On what grounds a Muslim wife can seek dissolution of her marriage? Q.21.What do you understand by “cruelty by the husband” under the Dissolution of Muslim Marrlage Act, 1939? (RJS 2014) Q. 22. (a) Distinguish between ahsan talaq,hasan talaq and talaq-e-tafwiz. (b) Explain the concepts of khula and mubaraat. (c) What are the grounds of dissolution of marriage available to a Muslim wife under the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act, 1939? (DJS2008) Q.23. Write short but critical note on Guardianship in marriage. Q.24. “A” is mother of a minor Muslim “B”.She sells “B’ s” immovable property for his necessities and benefits. “A” is de facto guardian of “B”.Discuss the validity of the saie..[UPJS 2012] Q.25. Discuss briefly the rules of Muslim law with regard to legitimacy of a child.What is the effect of acknowledgment of legitimacy? Q.26. Stating the concept of presumption of legitimacy under Muslim Law,point out the differences between Muslim Law and Section 112 of Indian Evidence Act in this regard. Q.27. The law of adoption is unknown to Muslim Law. In this connection explain the meaning of acknowledgment of paternity under Muslim Law. Q.28. Write short note on Maintenance of a wife. Q.29. To what extent is a Muslim husband bound to maintain his wife?Explain.(UPJS 1985) Q.30. Write short note on testamentary guardian and his powers. Q.31. Write short note on Hizanat. Q.32. Who are the Guardians of a Muslim minor under Muslim Law?.(DJS1999) Q.33. What is meant by Khayar al-bulugh or “option of puberty”? ( DJS 2008) Q.34. What are the general principles of succession under the Hanafi Law?Explain. Q.35. Write short note on classification of heirs under the Shia Law of Inheritance Q.36. (a) What do you mean by doctrines of ‘Aul and Radd’. (b) (i) A Muslim woman died leaving her husband and two sisters. How her property will devolve? (ii) A Muslim male died leaving his mother, widow and daughter. How much share they will get? Q.37. Define “Residuaries” under the Muslim Law. .(RJS 1986) Q. 38. Distinguish between hiba and hiba-bil-iwaz.Illustrate our answer. Q.39. What are the constituents of a valid ‘Hiba’ ? Can a valid gift be made in favour of a Non-Muslim? Q.40. Explain the nature of ‘Hiba-ba-shar-tul-iwaz’ and how far it is distinguishable from the incidents of sale? Q.41. Explaining the essential conditions of a valid gift under the Muslim Law,state the circumstances, if any, when transfer of possession is not necessary for making gift. Q.42. Write short note on Gift made during Murz-ul-Maut. Q.43. A maternal grand father made a gift in favour of his newly born grand child.The mother of the child accepted the gift on behalf of the minor. Is this gift valid under Muslim Law. Q.44. What is limited estate? Does Muslim law recognise the transfer of limited estate? Refer.to decided cases..(UPJS 1991) Q.45. “Life estate is unknown to Muslim Law as administered in India, but life interest can be created” [UPJS 1999] Q.46. When and how can a gift be revoked by a donor under Muslim law? In what cases the power to revoke comes to an end? Discuss. (UPJS…

Law, Uncategorized

Sec. 187 BNSS (corresponds to sec. 167 CrPC) Procedure when investigation cannot be completed in twenty-four hours.

January 29, 2025January 29, 2025 toahostinger No Comments

Section 187 of BNSS (corresponds to sec. 167 CrPC) deals with the procedure to be followed when the investigation of a case cannot be completed within 24 hours (the time limit prescribed by Section 58 (57 CrPC) for producing an arrested person before a Magistrate). Sec. 187. (1) Whenever any person is arrested and detained in custody, and it appears that the investigation cannot be completed within the period of twenty-four hours fixed by section 58, and there are grounds for believing that the accusation or information is well-founded, the officer in charge of the police station or the police officer making the investigation, if he is not below the rank of sub-inspector, shall forthwith transmit to the nearest Magistrate a copy of the entries in the diary hereinafter specified relating to the case, and shall at the same time forward the accused to such Magistrate. (2) The Magistrate to whom an accused person is forwarded under this section may, irrespective of whether he has or has no jurisdiction to try the case, after taking into consideration whether such person has not been released on bail or his bail has been cancelled, authorise, from time to time, the detention of the accused in such custody as such Magistrate thinks fit, for a term not exceeding fifteen days in the whole, or in parts, at any time during the initial forty days or sixty days out of detention period of sixty days or ninety days, as the case may be, as provided in sub-section (3), and if he has no jurisdiction to try the case or commit it for trial, and considers further detention unnecessary, he may order the accused to be forwarded to a Magistrate having such jurisdiction. (3) The Magistrate may authorise the detention of the accused person, beyond the period of fifteen days, if he is satisfied that adequate grounds exist for doing so, but no Magistrate shall authorise the detention of the accused person in custody under this sub-section for a total period exceeding— (i) ninety days, where the investigation relates to an offence punishable with death, imprisonment for life or imprisonment for a term of ten years or more; (i) sixty days, where the investigation relates to any other offence, and, on the expiry of the said period of ninety days, or sixty days, as the case may be, the accused person shall be released on bail if he is prepared to and does furnish bail, and every person released on bail under this sub-section shall be deemed to be so released under the provisions of Chapter XXXV for the purposes of that Chapter: (4) No Magistrate shall authorise detention of the accused in custody of the police under this section unless the accused is produced before him in person for the first time and subsequently every time till the accused remains in the custody of the police, but the Magistrate may extend further detention in judicial custody on production of the accused either in person or through the audio-video electronic means. (5) No Magistrate of the second class, not specially empowered in this behalf by the High Court, shall authorise detention in the custody of the police. Explanation I.—For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that, notwithstanding the expiry of the period specified in sub-section (3), the accused shall be detained in custody so long as he does not furnish bail. Explanation II.—If any question arises whether an accused person was produced before the Magistrate as required under sub-section (4), the production of the accused person may be proved by his signature on the order authorising detention or by the order certified by the Magistrate as to production of the accused person through the audio-video electronic means, as the case may be: Provided that in case of a woman under eighteen years of age, the detention shall be authorised to be in the custody of a remand home or recognised social institution: Provided further that no person shall be detained otherwise than in police station under police custody or in prison under judicial custody or a place declared as prison by the Central Government or the State Government. (6) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1) to sub-section (5), the officer in charge of the police station or the police officer making the investigation, if he is not below the rank of a sub-inspector, may, where a Magistrate is not available, transmit to the nearest Executive Magistrate, on whom the powers of a Magistrate have been conferred, a copy of the entry in the diary hereinafter specified relating to the case, and shall, at the same time, forward the accused to such Executive Magistrate, and thereupon such Executive Magistrate, may, for reasons to be recorded in writing, authorise the detention of the accused person in such custody as he máy think fit for a term not exceeding seven days in the aggregate; and, on the expiry of the period of detention so authorised, the accused person shall be released on bail except where an order for further detention of the accused person has been made by a Magistrate competent to make such order; and, where an order for such further detention is made, the period during which the accused person was detained in custody under the orders made by an Executive Magistrate under this sub-section, shall be taken into account in computing the period specified in sub-section (3): Provided that before the expiry of the period aforesaid, the Executive Magistrate shall transmit to the nearest Judicial Magistrate the records of the case together with a copy of the entries in the diary relating to the case which was transmitted to him by the officer in charge of the police station or the police officer making the investigation, as the case may be. (7) A Magistrate authorising under this section detention in the custody of the police shall record his reasons for so doing. (8) Any Magistrate other than the Chief Judicial Magistrate making…

Criminal Law, Law

Immovable property, profit a prendre and doctrine of fixtures

November 18, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

Section 3 Interpretation Clause Immovable Property Immovable Property Stating simply Immovable property means the property which can not be moved from one place to another. According to Section 3 of the Transfer of Property Act “immovable property” does not include standing timber, growing crops or grass. The definition of the term “immovable property” in this section is a negative definition. It is not a comprehensive, and exhaustive definition. It merely excludes standing timber, growing crops or grass. The positive definition of immovable property has been given in section 3(26) of General Clauses Act, 1897. According to this section immovable property includes land, benefits to arise out of land and things attached to the earth, or permanently fastened to anything attached to the earth. The definition given under the General Clauses Act, 1897 applies to the Transfer of Property Act, 1882 also (Babulal v Bhawani, 1912). Thus, the definition of immovable property given in Section 3 of The Transfer of Property Act, 1882 and under the General Clauses Act, 1897 both explain the definition of immovable property that immovable property includes the following elements: Land Benefits to arise out of land and Things attached to the earth: (a) things embedded in the earth; (b) things attached to what is so embedded in the earth; (c) things rooted to the earth except:- (i) standing timber, (ii) growing crops, or (ii) growing grasses Land. Land means surface of the land, and what is below, upon and under the surface of the land. The soil, mud, water, pond and river are also the part and parcel of the land. Sub-soil of the land, minerals, coals and gold mines are immovable property. The space which are above the surface of the land is also immovable property because of the fact that space starts just above the surface of the land. Benefits to arise out. of land-The benefits to arise out of land are immovable property. Any right exercise by a person on a piece of land and gets certain profit that is his intangible-immovable property. The right to way on a land or right to use a land under lease or tenancy is Immovable property. The right of a tenant to live in the house of land-lord and right to catch the fish from the pond or river are also an immovable property. The rights of ferry on river or lake waters by boats or steamers are immovable property as water of river or lakes are benefits to arise out of land and thus immovable property. Likewise right to extract coal or gold from the mines are immovable property. Profit à prendre Profit à prendre is a legal right that allows an individual to enter another person’s land and take some part of the land’s natural produce or resources. This could include things like minerals, timber, or even fish. Essentially, it is a right to extract and remove something from the land. For example, if someone has a profit à prendre to fish in a lake on someone else’s property, they have the right to enter the land, fish, and take the fish away. This right can be granted through an agreement or can be acquired by prescription (long-term use). A right to enter upon the land of another and carry a part of the produce is an instance of profits a pendre ie. benefit arising out of land, and therefore a grant in immovable property.(SHANTA BAI V STATE OF BOMBAY 1958 SC) Ananda Behera v State of Orissa 1956 SC Case Summary: Context: Petitioners obtained oral licenses from the Raja of Parikud to catch and appropriate fish from Chilka Lake, paying significant sums and receiving receipts. This occurred before the Orissa Estates Abolition Act of 1951, which transferred ownership of the estate to the State of Orissa. Issue: The licenses were for periods after the estate vested in the state. The State of Orissa refused to recognize these licenses and sought to reclaim the fishery rights. Petitioners’ Argument: They claimed their fundamental rights under Articles 19(1)(f) and 31(1) of the Constitution were infringed, arguing the transactions were sales of future goods (fish), not immovable property. Court’s Decision: The court held that the right acquired was a license to enter the land and catch fish (profit à prendre), which is considered immovable property under the Transfer of Property Act and the General Clauses Act. Since the sale of this right was valued over 100 rupees and was not in writing or registered, it violated Section 54 of the Transfer of Property Act, meaning no title or interest passed to the petitioners. Fundamental Rights: The court found no fundamental rights were infringed as the state did not confiscate or take possession of the contract but merely refused to recognize it, which could lead to a contractual dispute but not a constitutional one. 3.Things attached to earth. -According to Section 3 of the Transfer of Property Act, 1882 expression things attached to earth’ means (i) rooted in the earth, as in the case of trees and shrubs, (ii) embedded in the earth, as in the case of walls or buildings; or (iii) attached to what is so embedded for the permanent beneficial enjoyment of to which it is attached. Things rooted to the earth-Rooted in earth as in the case of trees and shrubs. The trees, plants shrubs and herbs are rooted in the earth firmly they are called immovable property. When they are cut down their position are changed and they come under the category of movable property. But according to Section 3 of the TPA as an exception to this general rule are standing timber, growing crops and grass are movable properties. (ii) Things embedded in the earth– As in the case of walls or buildings which are fixed in the earth and become part of the land. Electricity poles, houses, buildings, walls are immovable properties because they are things embedded in the earth. Where the things are just placed…

Interview, judiciary, Law, Legal, Property ACT

Transfer for benefit of unborn person sec. 13 TPA

November 18, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

Transfer for benefit of unborn person sec. 13 TPA Provisions regarding transfer of property for the benefit of unborn persons have been laid down in Section 13 of the Transfer of Property Act, 1882. Accordingly sec.13 reads as, “where on a transfer of property, an interest is created therein for the benefit of a person not in existence on date of the transfer, subject to a prior interest created by the same transfer, the interest created for the benefit of such person shall not take effect, unless it extends to the whole of the remaining interest of the transferor in the property.” Illustration A transfers property of which he is the owner to B, in trust for A and his intended wife successively for their lives and after the death of survivor for the eldest son of the intended marriage for life and after his death for A’s second son. The interest so created for the benefit of the eldest son does not take effect, because it does not extend to the whole of A’s remaining interest in the property. Transfer for the benefit of unborn person.– According to Section 5 of the Transfer of Property Act, 1882, the general rule is that property can be transferred from one living person to another. However, if someone wishes to transfer property to an unborn person, unborn is a person who is not in existence at the time of the transfer not even in the mother’s womb, such a transfer is also possible, subject to the conditions and methods provided in Section 13 of the Act.. A transfer cannot be made directly to an unborn person. Such a transfer can only be made by the machinery of trusts. For the benefit of the trustees being the transferee who held the property for the benefit of the unborn person. Hence, it is clear that a property, cannot be transferred to an unborn person directly. Such transfer can be made by the machinery of trust. Procedure of Transfer to an unborn As per section 13 of the Act, for a transfer of benefit of unborn; (i) a life estate has to be created in favour of living person or persons and, (ii) an absolute interest must be transferred in favour of the unborn. The person in whose favour a life estate has been created shall possess and enjoy it till the time he/she is alive. If during such person’s life time the person in whose favour an absolute interest has been created (i.e. the unborn) is born, the title in the property shall immediately vest in him/her even though he/she would get possession of the property only upon the death of life holder. If the unborn is not born during the life time of the life holder, the property shall be enjoyed by the life holder during his life time after which it would revert back to the transferor or his heirs as the case maybe. Example In a case where A transfers his property in 1960 to B for life and then to C for life and finally to C’s son S, who is unborn at this time. Both B and C are alive at this time the property would be first possessed by B for his life and then by C. And after C the property shall be transferred absolutely to the S, who must be in existence at or before the death of the C. S is born in 1970. At this time, he takes a vested interest in the property but the possession of it is postponed till the death of C (which say for instance took place in 1975) If S died in 1974, then because he had a vested interest in the property since 1970 i.e. when he was born, the property would after the death of C go to the heirs of S. But if S was not born till 1975 (i.e. when the last life estate in favour of C ended) then the property would revert back to A or his heirs as the case maybe. Thus it is important for a valid transfer under section 13, for an absolute interest to be created in favour of unborn (i.e. a life estate cannot be made in favour of unborn) and for the unborn to come into existence before the life estate created in favour of someone else comes to an end. According to Section 13 a property can be transferred for the benefit of an unborn person subject to the following conditions: Prior interest: Transfer for the unborn person must be preceded by a life interest in favour of a person in existence at the date of the transfer. The property which is to be transferred must vest in some person between the date of the transfer and coming into existence of the unborn person. The interest of the unborn person must, therefore, be in every case preceded by a prior interest and before termination of prior preceding interest, the unborn person must come in existence otherwise it would not vest in the unborn person. 2. Only absolute interest may be transferred in favour of the unborn person. It means property can not be transferred to an unborn with life interest or without power of alienation. We have the following propositions: (i) the intermediary person living at the time of the transfer is to be given only life interest. It means giving him only the right of enjoyment and possession. He has to preserve the property like a trustee during the life.time on behalf of the unborn person. (ii) The unborn must come into existence before the death of the.person holding property for the life. After the death of last living person in other words after the termination of the preceding interest the unborn person comes into existence, he cannot succeed to get the property. Because of the fact after termination of life interest, the property cannot remain in abeyance.and cannot wait…

Interview, judiciary, Law, Legal, Property ACT

Section 4 of The Limitation Act, 1963

November 11, 2024November 11, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

Section 4 of the Limitation Act, 1963 addresses the situation when the prescribed period for any legal action expires on a day when the court is closed. This section provides a safeguard to ensure that the right to institute a legal action is not unfairly curtailed due to court holidays or closures. It is to be kept in mind that since Section 4 is an exception, it will not increase the prescribed period (PP). It is just an exception to Section 3. Text of Section 4: “Expiry of prescribed period when court is closed: Where the prescribed period for any suit, appeal, or application expires on a day when the court is closed, the suit, appeal, or application may be instituted, preferred, or made on the day when the court reopens. Explanation: A court shall be deemed to be closed on any day if during any part of its normal working hours it remains closed on that day.” Key Points: Prescribed Period: The term “prescribed period” refers to the time limit set by the Limitation Act for initiating a legal action. These periods vary depending on the nature of the suit, appeal, or application. Court Closure: This section applies when the last day of the limitation period falls on a day when the court is closed. This closure can be due to weekends, public holidays, or any other reason that leads to the court being non-operational during its normal working hours. Extension to the Next Working Day: If the last day of the limitation period is a day when the court is closed, Section 4 allows the action to be initiated on the next day when the court reopens. This provision ensures that parties are not deprived of their right to legal recourse simply because the court was closed on the last day of the limitation period. Explanation Clause: The explanation to Section 4 clarifies that a court is considered closed if it remains closed for any part of its normal working hours on a given day. This means that even if the court is open for a brief period but is closed for the majority of its working hours, it is still deemed to be closed. Practical Implications: Fairness and Justice: This provision aims to ensure fairness and justice by accommodating the practical realities of court closures. It prevents the limitation period from expiring on a day when it is impossible to take legal action. Legal Strategy: Lawyers and litigants must be aware of this provision as it can be crucial in planning the timing of filing suits, appeals, or applications. It provides a cushion period to ensure that their actions are not dismissed on technical grounds of being time-barred. Administrative Ease: It simplifies the administrative process by providing a clear rule for handling cases where the limitation period ends on a day the court is closed, thus avoiding confusion and potential disputes over filing deadlines. Examples: If the last day to file an appeal is on a Sunday (a non-working day for courts), under Section 4, the appeal can be filed on the following Monday when the court reopens. If a public holiday falls on the last day of the limitation period, the legal action can be initiated on the next working day immediately after the holiday. Conclusion: Section 4 of the Limitation Act is a crucial provision that ensures the right to legal action is preserved despite court closures. It reflects the principle that procedural technicalities should not impede access to justice. By allowing the initiation of legal proceedings on the next working day after a court closure, it provides a practical solution to a common issue, thereby promoting fairness and equity in the legal process.

judiciary, Law, Legal

Ratio decidendi and Obiter dicta

October 13, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

Ratio decidendi and Obiter dicta Ratio decidendi Ratio decidendi is a Latin term that means “the reason for the decision.” It refers to the legal principle or rule that is the basis for a court’s decision in a case. This principle is what future courts will follow when deciding similar cases. These are binding on future cases. Ratio Decidendi Example The ratio decidendi of the Kesavananda Bharati v State of Kerala 1973 SC case is the establishment of the basic structure doctrine. The Supreme Court held that while the Parliament has wide powers to amend the Constitution under Article 368, it does not have the power to alter or destroy the basic structure or framework of the Constitution. This principle is binding and has been followed in numerous subsequent cases. For example in Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain, 1975 SC Context: This case challenged the election of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Application: The Supreme Court applied the basic structure doctrine to strike down the 39th Amendment, which sought to place the election of the Prime Minister beyond judicial review. The court held that judicial review is part of the basic structure of the Constitution. Obiter dicta Obiter dicta is a Latin term that means “things said by the way.” In simple terms, it refers to comments or observations made by a judge in a court’s decision that are not essential to the outcome of the case. These remarks are not binding in future cases but can be persuasive. Obiter Dicta Example In Kesavananda Bharati v State of Kerala 1973 SC judges observed that while the Constitution must be flexible to adapt to changing times, this flexibility should not extend to altering its basic structure. They emphasized the need for a balance between allowing amendments and preserving the core principles of the Constitution. Besides this court also discussed about the concept of secularism, and discussed about preamble, fundamental rights in this case. Judges also commented on the role of the judiciary in safeguarding the Constitution. These discussions and observations of the court was not essential for the outcome of the case, hence it was an obiter dicta.

Indian Constitution, Interview, judiciary, Law, Legal

Ad-Interim Injunctions

October 10, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

Why in News? A division bench of Justice Pushpendra Singh Bhati and Justice Munnuri Laxman of the Rajasthan High Court granted an ad-interim stay on the impugned order dated 08-10-2024, issued by the Commercial Court, Jodhpur, which had earlier placed an ad-interim injunction against the release of the movie “Jigra” citing trademark violation. The Court allowed the release of the movie while safeguarding the respondent’s right to claim damages if a trademark violation is later proven. What is Ad-Interim Injunction? Purpose: The primary aim of an ad-interim injunction under ORDER XXXIX CPC is to maintain the status quo until the court thoroughly examines the merits of the case. It ensures that no party suffers irreparable damage during ongoing litigation. Applicability: An ad-interim injunction is typically issued when there is a prima facie case indicating potential harm to the plaintiff. It is a temporary measure applied while the main dispute is under consideration. Such injunctions can be modified or revoked as the case progresses, depending on new facts or legal arguments. Notice by the Court: Generally, a notice is issued to the opposite party before granting an ad-interim injunction. In urgent cases, ex-parte injunctions may be granted temporarily, even without prior notice, under Order XXXIX Rule 3 of the CPC. Time-Limit: Ad-interim injunctions are temporary and usually apply for a specified period. The court may extend or modify these injunctions as necessary based on the evolving circumstances of the case. Violation: As per Rule 2A of the ORDER XXXIX of CPC, if a party disobeys the terms of an ad-interim injunction, the court may: Attach the property of the guilty party. Detain the person in civil prison for up to three months, unless directed otherwise by the court. Essentials to Avail Ad-Interim Injunction: The plaintiff must demonstrate a prima facie case in their favor. The plaintiff must show potential for irreparable injury if the injunction is not granted. The court assesses the balance of convenience to determine if the injunction is justified. The plaintiff must prove that there is no other adequate remedy available, such as monetary compensation.

judiciary, Law

Mehr (Dower) Muslim Law

October 2, 2024October 2, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

Mehr (Dower) Definition, Nature and Importance of Dower (Mahr) “Dower is a sum of money or other property which the wife is entitled to receive from the husband in consideration of marriage” Mulla. According to K.P. Saxena “Dower is a sum of money or any property promised by the husband to be paid or delivered to the wife as a mark of respect for the surrender of her person after the marriage contract but generally said to be consideration for marriage.” Further, In Saburannessa v. Sabdur Sheikh, [(1934) Justice Mitter remarked: The marriage under Muslim law is a civil contract and it is like a contract of sale. But the notion of dower given above is not correct. Fitzgerald says: “It would be incorrect to describe the Muslim dower purely as the bride’s price.” Baillie says, under Muslim Law ‘dower is an obligation imposed upon the husband as a mark of respect to the wife.’ Abdur Rahim rightly says, “It is not a consideration proceeding from the husband for the contract of marriage, but is an obligation imposed by the law on the husband as a mark of respect for the wife as is evident from the fact that the non-specification of dower at the time of marriage does not affect the validity of marriage.” (Muhammadan Jurisprudence, p. 334). Hedaya says that “the payment of dower is enjoined by the law as a token of respect for its object, the woman.” Further unlike sale, dower is not given to anyone except to the women herself. Object of Dower The object of dower is three-fold: to impose an obligation on the husband as a mark of respect of the wife; to place a check on the capricious use of divorce on the part of husband; and to provide for her subsistence after the dissolution of her marriage, so that she may not become helpless after the death of the husband or termination of marriage by divorce. Subject matter of dower A handful of dates (Abu Daud). A pair of shoes (Tirmizi). If the husband is a slave, his services to his wife (Mohit Sarkhsee). The services of the husband’s slaves to the wife (Fatawa-i-Alamgiri). Husband’s services rendered to the guardian of a minor wife (Durrul Muktar). Teaching Koran to the wife (Tradition). In fact, the main contention of the Muslim jurists is that anything which comes within the definition of property can be the subject-matter of dower. Minimum and Maximum Amounts of dower Minimum – Hanafis 10 dirhams Malikis – 3 dirhams. Shafiis No minimum. Shias. No minimum. Maximum amount can be any amount without any upper limit. Among some of the sects of Shias, however, there is a tendency “not to stipulate for a sum higher than the minimum fixed by the Prophet for his favourite daughter Fatima, the wife of Ali, namely 500 dirhams. Amounts of dower and conditions of payment. If the marriage is consummated, and is dissolved by death: (a) whole of the specified dower or in case of regular marriage. (b) proper dower if unspecified, (c) specified or proper dower, which is less, in the case of irregular marriage. if the marriage is not consummated, and is dissolved by the act of party. (i) When divorced by the husband– (a) half of the specified dower, or (b) a present of three articles, if unspecified – in case of regular marriage (ii) When divorced by the wife: No dower, (iii) If the marriage is irregular: No dower Kinds of dower Broadly, there are two kinds of dower: specified (Mahr i Musamma) and unspecified (proper or Mahr i Misl). The specified dower has been further divided into: (a) Prompt (Mahr Muajjal) and (b) Deferred (Mahr e Muwajjal) (i) Specified dower.- An amount settled by the parties at the time of marriage or after, is called specified dower. If the bridegroom is minor, his father may settle the amount of dower, Hanafi Law says that the father is not personally liable for the dower, but according to Shia Law, he will be so liable. Prompt and Deferred dower.-Prompt dower is payable on demand, and deferred dower is payable on the dissolution of marriage by death or divorce. The prompt portion of the dower may be realised by the wife at any time before or after consummation, but the deferred dower could not be so demanded. In the case where it is not settled how much of the dower is prompt and what part of it is deferred, the Shia Law holds that the whole of dower is prompt; the Sunni Law, however, holds that only a part is prompt. This part is to be fixed with reference to (i) custom, or (ii) the status of the parties, and (iii) the amount of settled dower. Unspecified dower.-In such cases where dower has not been settled at the time of the marriage or after, it is fixed with reference to the social position of the wife’s family and her own personal qualifications. Help would be taken by taking into account the amounts of dower fixed in case of wife’s sisters, paternal aunts, etc., and according to the Hedaya, the wife’s age, beauty, intellect and virtue will also be considered. Such dowers are called mahr-ul-misl. One aspect of dower beneficial to the Muslim woman is that even where the parties to the marriage have not stipulated any dower, the husband remains under an obligation to pay it. Remedies in case of non-payment of Dower The rights which dower confers on the wife are threefold : Refusal to cohabit. Right to dower as a debt. Retention of husband’s property. Refusal to cohabit. Before consummation, the wife is entitled to refuse to live with her husband and refuse to him sexual intercourse so long as prompt dower is not paid to her. In a suit for restitution of conjugal rights by the husband, the non-payment of prompt dower is a complete defence if the marriage is not consummated. If the wife…

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Human Rights, judiciary, Law, Legal, Uncategorized

September 25, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

WRITS The state and its instrumentalities, such as the police, universities, and other government bodies, exist to serve the nation and fulfil public duties. However, there are times when these very entities violate our rights, leaving us with no other option. In such instances, we can seek help and assistance from the court by applying for special orders known as writs. Thus, writs are special orders issued by superior courts to protect people’s rights and ensure that justice is done. These writs are five in number. These writs serve as an effective mechanism through which the judiciary can uphold the rights of individuals when those rights are violated, particularly by the state or public authorities, and in some cases even by private individuals. In India, two courts have the authority to issue writs: Supreme Court (Article 32): Writs only for fundamental rights. High Courts (Article 226): Writs for fundamental rights and other legal rights. Habeas Corpus Habeas Corpus is a Latin term which literally means “you may have the body”. The writ is issued in the form of an order calling upon a person by whom another person is detained to bring that person before the Court and to let the Court know by what authority he has detained that person. Who can apply for the writ: The general rule is that an application can be made by a person who is illegally detained, But in certain cases, an application of habeas corpus can be made by any person on behalf of the prisoner, i.e., a friend or a relation. Burden of proof The burden of proof to justify detention has always been placed on the detaining authority. Writ against private individual The Supreme Court of India clarified this in the case of Kanu Sanyal v. District Magistrate, Darjeeling (1973). In this landmark judgment, the Court emphasized that the writ of habeas corpus can be issued not only against public authorities but also against private individuals if it is proven that they are unlawfully detaining someone. Case Law and Example: Mohd. Ikram Hussain v. State of U.P. (1964) All Facts: Mohd. Ikram Hussain was arrested and detained by the police under the suspicion of having committed a crime. His family believed that the detention was illegal, as he was not produced before a magistrate within the stipulated time, and there was no legal basis for his continued detention. The family filed a petition in the Allahabad High Court, seeking a writ of habeas corpus to challenge the illegal detention and secure his release. Judgement: The Allahabad High Court issued the writ of habeas corpus and ordered the police to bring Mohd. Ikram Hussain before the court to justify his detention. Upon reviewing the facts, the court found that: The detention was illegal, as the police had not followed due process, including presenting him before a magistrate within the required time. The court directed his immediate release, as there was no valid reason for his continued detention. Similarly, the detention becomes unlawful if a person who is arrested is not produced before the Magistrate within 24 hours of his arrest and he will be entitled to be released on the writ of habeas corpus. It can also be issued in case of child’s custody cases by one parent against the other. Mandamus The word “mandamus” means “the order” or “we command”. When it is used: If a government officer or body is not performing its duty, you can approach the court for a mandamus writ to compel them to act. For instance, a licensing officer is under a duty to issue a licence to an applicant who fulfils all the conditions laid down for the issue of such Licence. But despite the fulfilment of such conditions if the officer or the authority concerned refuses or fails to issue the licence the aggrieved person has a right to seek the remedy through a writ of mandamus. Allahabad High Court issued a writ of mandamus to direct the Regional Passport Officer to issue a passport to the petitioner. (Basoo Yadav v. Union of India, 2022 All) When it will not lie. —A writ of mandamus will not be granted in the following circumstances: (1) When the duty is merely discretionary in nature the writ of mandamus will not lie. State of M. P. v. Mandawara,’ the M. P. Government made a rule making it discretionary to grant dearness allowance to its employees at a particular rate. The Supreme Court held that the writ of mandamus could not be issued to compel the Government to exercise its power. (2) A writ of mandamus does not lie against a private individual or any private organisation because they are not entrusted with a public duty.’ (3) A writ of mandamus cannot be granted to enforce an obligation arising out of contract.’ Prohibition A writ of prohibition literally means “to forbid”. It is issued primarily to prevent an inferior court or tribunal from exceeding its jurisdiction or acting contrary to the rules of natural justice. It is issued by a superior Court to inferior courts for the purpose of preventing inferior Courts from usurping a jurisdiction with which it was not legally vested, or in other words to compel inferior courts to keep within the limits of their jurisdiction. Thus the writ is issued in both cases where there is excess of jurisdiction and where there is absence of jurisdiction. Hari Vishnu Kamath v. Syed Ahmad Ishaque (1955) Facts: This case involved an election dispute where the Election Tribunal’s decision was challenged. Reasoning: The Supreme Court issued a writ of prohibition to prevent the Tribunal from proceeding further, as it had acted beyond its jurisdiction. East India Commercial Co. Ltd. v. Collector of Customs (1962) Facts: This case involved the seizure of goods by customs authorities without proper jurisdiction. Reasoning: The Supreme Court issued a writ of prohibition to prevent the customs authorities from proceeding further, as they had acted beyond their jurisdiction….

The Empress vs Gonesh Dooley And Gopi Dooley 1879 Cal

August 25, 2024August 25, 2024 toahostinger No Comments

The Empress vs Gonesh Dooley And Gopi Dooley 1879 Cal (Snake Charmer’s Case) JUDGMENT by McDonell, J. Case Facts: Gonesh Dooley was accused of causing the death of a boy by placing a snake on him by exhibiting in public a venomous snake, whose fangs he knew had not been extracted, and to show his own skill, but without any intention to cause harm to anyone, placed the snake on the head of one of the spectators. The spectator in trying to push off the snake was bitten, and died in consequence. Issues Involved Prosecution’s Argument: The prosecution argued that Gonesh intentionally caused the boy’s death by placing the snake on him, knowing it was dangerous. They also argued that Gopi abetted Gonesh by encouraging or assisting him in the act. Defense’s Argument: The defense argued that Gonesh did not have the intention to kill the boy. They claimed it was a reckless act without the knowledge that it would result in death. They also argued that Gopi did not actively participate in the act and should not be held responsible. Court’s Reasoning: Courts Analysis: The court found that Gonesh did not intentionally cause the boy’s death. It was determined that he did not know the act was “so imminently dangerous that it must, in all probability, cause death” (the last clause of murder) Comparison with Previous Case: The court compared this case with another case The Queen v. Poonai Fattemah 1869, where the accused had intentionally caused a snake to bite the victim. The court noted that in Gonesh’s case, there was no such clear intention or knowledge of imminent danger. Without intention but knowledge: Court observed that in this case “that Gonesh did not think that the snake would bite the boy. But we think that the act was done with the knowledge that it was likely to cause death, but without the intention of causing death.” Conclusion: Sentencing: The court found that Gonesh did not have the intention to cause death but acted with the knowledge that his actions were likely to cause death. Therefore, he was sentenced under Section 304 Part II. Gonesh Dooley was sentenced to three years of rigorous imprisonment. Gopi Dooley, who abetted Gonesh, was sentenced to one year of rigorous imprisonment under Sections 114 and 304 of the IPC.

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